Aadi Bioscience, Inc. - Quarter Report: 2019 March (Form 10-Q)

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, DC 20549

FORM 10-Q

(Mark One)

For the quarterly period ended March 31, 2019

OR

For the transition period from ______________ to ______________

Commission File Number: 001-38560

Aerpio Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

(Exact Name of Registrant as Specified in its Charter)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (513) 985-1920

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.     Yes  ☒    No  ☐  

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted  pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act).    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

As of May 07, 2019, the registrant had 40,588,004 shares of common stock, $0.0001 par value per share, outstanding.

Table of Contents

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PART I—FINANCIAL INFORMATION

Item 1. Financial Statements.

AERPIO PHARMACEUTICALS, INC.

Condensed Consolidated Balance Sheets

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

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AERPIO PHARMACEUTICALS, INC.

Condensed Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Loss

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

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AERPIO PHARMACEUTICALS, INC.

Condensed Consolidated Statement of Stockholders’ Equity 

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

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AERPIO PHARMACEUTICALS, INC.

Condensed Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these condensed consolidated financial statements.

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NOTES TO CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

(UNAUDITED)

1. Nature of Organization and Operations

Aerpio Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (the “Company”) is a biopharmaceutical company focused on developing compounds that activate Tie2 to treat ocular diseases and complications of diabetes. In March 2019, the Company announced the top line results of its AKB-9778 Phase 2b (TIME-2b) clinical trial initiated in June 2017 for the treatment of non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy, or NPDR, a disease characterized by progressive compromise of blood vessels in the back of the eye. While the Company believed AKB-9778 had the potential to slow down or possibly reverse retinal vascular changes caused by diabetes, the subcutaneous administration of AKB-9778 twice daily did not meet the study’s primary endpoint of increasing the percentage of patients with an improvement of two or more steps in diabetic retinopathy severity score in the study eye, compared to placebo.  However, the Company did see encouraging data in a number of prespecified, key secondary endpoints related to the changes in the Urine Albumin-Creatinine Ratio, a measure of kidney function, and in reducing intraocular pressure. As a result, the Company plans to advance a topical drop formulation of AKB-9778 into clinical development as a potential treatment for open-angle glaucoma and expects to initiate a Phase 1b clinical trial in the second quarter of 2019 with results anticipated by the end of 2019.

In addition, the Company’s pipeline program, ARP-1536, a humanized monoclonal antibody directed at the same target as AKB-9778 is in preclinical development.  The Company is evaluating development options for ARP-1536, including subcutaneous injection for the treatment of diabetic vascular complications.

The Company was incorporated as Zeta Acquisition Corp. II (“Zeta”) in the State of Delaware on November 16, 2007.  Zeta was a “shell company” (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended). On March 3, 2017, the Company’s  Board of Directors, and on March 10, 2017, the Company’s pre-Merger (as defined below) stockholders, approved an amended and restated certificate of incorporation, which, among other things, increased authorized capital stock from 100,000,000 shares of common stock, par value $0.0001 per share, and 10,000,000 shares of preferred stock, par value $0.0001 per share, to 300,000,000 shares of common stock, par value $0.0001 per share, and 10,000,000 shares of preferred stock, par value $0.0001 per share.

On March 15, 2017, Zeta changed its name to Aerpio Pharmaceuticals Inc. and its wholly-owned subsidiary, Aerpio Acquisition Corp., a corporation formed in the State of Delaware on March 3, 2017, merged with and into Aerpio Therapeutics, Inc. (“Aerpio”), (the “Merger”), a corporation incorporated on November 17, 2011 in the State of Delaware.  Pursuant to the Merger, Aerpio remained as the surviving corporation and became the Company’s wholly owned subsidiary.

At the effective time of the Merger, the shares of Aerpio’s (i) common stock issued and outstanding immediately prior to the closing of the Merger (including restricted common stock, whether vested or unvested, issued under the Aerpio’s 2011 Equity Incentive Plan), and (ii) redeemable convertible preferred stock issued and outstanding immediately prior to the closing of the Merger, were converted into shares of the Company’s common stock. In addition, immediately prior to the Merger, the outstanding amounts under certain senior secured convertible notes issued by Aerpio to its pre-Merger noteholders were converted into shares of Aerpio’s preferred stock, which were then converted to shares of Aerpio’s common stock and subsequently were converted into shares of the Company’s common stock, together with the other shares of the Aerpio’s common stock described above. In addition, pursuant to the Merger Agreement options to purchase shares of Aerpio’s common stock issued and outstanding immediately prior to the closing of the Merger were assumed and converted into options to purchase shares of the Company’s common stock. All the outstanding capital stock of Aerpio was converted into shares of the Company’s common stock on a 2.3336572:1 basis.

As a result of the Merger, the Company acquired the business of Aerpio and will continue the existing business operations of Aerpio as a public reporting company under the name Aerpio Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Immediately after the Merger, on March 15, 2017, Aerpio converted into a Delaware limited liability company (the “Conversion”).

Immediately following the Conversion, the pre-Merger stockholders of Zeta surrendered for cancellation 4,000,000 of the 5,000,000 shares of the outstanding common stock of Zeta, (the “Share Cancellation”). Following the Share Cancellation, on March 15, 2017, the Company closed a private placement offering (the “2017 Offering”) of 8,049,555 shares of the Company’s common stock, at a purchase price of $5.00 per share, for net proceeds of $37.2 million and the issuance of warrants with a term of three years, to purchase 317,562 shares of the Company’s common stock at an exercise price of $5.00 per share.

The Merger was treated as a recapitalization and reverse acquisition for financial reporting purposes. The Company is the legal acquirer of Aerpio in the transaction.  However, Aerpio is considered the acquiring company for accounting purposes since (i) former Aerpio stockholders own in excess of 50% of the combined enterprise on a fully diluted basis immediately following the Merger and 2017 Offering, and (ii) all members of the Company’s executive management and Board of Directors are from Aerpio. In accordance with “reverse merger” or “reverse acquisition” accounting treatment, the unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements for the periods ended March 31, 2019 and 2018, include the accounts of the Company and its wholly owned subsidiary, Aerpio Therapeutics, LLC.

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The Company’s operations to date have been limited to organizing and staffing the Company, business planning, raising capital, acquiring and developing its technology, identifying potential product candidates, and undertaking preclinical and clinical studies. The Company’s revenue to date has been primarily limited to license revenue from Gossamer Bio., Inc, during 2018.  Future revenue is dependent on the terms of the license agreement with Gossamer Bio., Inc as further described in Footnote 11. The Company’s product candidates are subject to long development cycles, and there is no assurance the Company will be able to successfully develop, obtain regulatory approval for, or market its product candidates.

The Company is subject to a number of risks similar to other life science companies in the current stage of its life cycle including, but not limited to, the need to obtain adequate additional funding, possible failure of preclinical testing or clinical trials, the need to obtain marketing approval for its product candidates, competitors developing new technological innovations, the need to successfully commercialize and gain market acceptance of any of the Company’s products that are approved, and protection of proprietary technology. If the Company does not successfully commercialize any of its products or mitigate any of these other risks, it will be unable to generate revenue or achieve profitability.

The Company’s inability to obtain required funding in the near future could have a material adverse effect on its operations and strategic development plan for future growth. If the Company cannot successfully raise additional capital and implement its strategic development plan, its liquidity, financial condition and business prospects will be materially and adversely affected, and the Company may have to cease operations.   Based on the Company’s current cash reserves of $53.4 million at March 31, 2019 and financial condition as of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, we believe our existing cash and cash equivalent will be sufficient to fund currently planned operations at least through the second quarter of fiscal year 2021.

2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

Basis of Presentation

The unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”) regulations and include all of the information and disclosures required by U.S. generally accepted accounting principles ("U.S. GAAP" or "GAAP") for interim financial reporting, and, in the opinion of management include all adjustments necessary for a fair presentation of the results of operations, financial position, changes in stockholders’ equity and cash flows for each period presented. All adjustments are of a normal and recurring in nature. These unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements of the Company for the year ended December 31, 2018, included in the Annual Report on Form 10-K filed with the SEC on March 7, 2019. The results of operations for the interim periods are not necessarily indicative of results of operations for a full year. The Company’s condensed consolidated financial statements are stated in U.S. Dollars.

Segment Information

Operating segments are defined as components of an enterprise about which separate discrete information is available for evaluation by the chief operating decision maker, or decision-making group, in deciding how to allocate resources and in assessing performance. The Company views its operations and manages its business in one operating segment, which is the business of developing and commercializing proprietary therapeutics. All the assets and operations of the Company’s sole operating segment are located in the United States.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of condensed consolidated financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the condensed consolidated financial statements and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results may differ from those estimates. Management considers many factors in selecting appropriate financial accounting policies and controls and in developing the estimates and assumptions used in the preparation of these condensed consolidated financial statements. Management must apply significant judgment in this process. In addition, other factors may affect estimates, including expected business and operational changes, sensitivity and volatility associated with the assumptions used in developing estimates, and whether historical trends are expected to be representative of future trends. The estimation process often may yield a range of potentially reasonable estimates of the ultimate future outcomes, and management must select an amount that falls within that range of reasonable estimates. Estimates are used in the following areas, among others: grant date fair value of the Company’s stock-based awards, accrued expenses, revenue recognition and income taxes.

The Company’s results can also be affected by economic, political, legislative, regulatory and legal actions.  Economic conditions, such as recessionary trends, inflation, interest and monetary exchange rates, government fiscal policies, and changes in the prices of research studies, can have a significant effect on operations. While the Company maintains reserves for anticipated liabilities and carries various levels of insurance, the Company could be affected by civil, criminal, regulatory or administrative actions, claims or proceedings.

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Cash and Cash Equivalents

Cash and cash equivalents consist of all cash on hand, deposits and funds invested in short-term investments with original maturities of three months or less at the time of purchase. The Company does maintain balances with its banks in excess of federally insured limits.

Revenue Recognition

At the inception of an arrangement, the Company evaluates if a counterparty to a contract is a customer, if the arrangement is within the scope of revenue from contracts with customers guidance and the term of the contract.  The Company recognizes revenue when its customer obtains control of promised goods or services in a contract for an amount that reflects the consideration the Company expects to receive in exchange for those goods or services. For contracts with customers, the Company applies the following five-step model in order to determine this amount: (i) identification of the promised goods or services in the contract; (ii) determination of whether the promised goods or services are performance obligations, including whether they are distinct in the context of the contract; (iii) measurement of the transaction price, including the constraint on variable consideration; (iv) allocation of the transaction price to the performance obligations; and (v) recognition of revenue when (or as) the Company satisfies each performance obligation.  The Company only applies the five-step model to contracts when it is probable that the entity will collect the consideration it is entitled to in exchange for the goods or services it transfers to the customer. As part of the accounting for contracts with customers, the Company must develop assumptions that require judgment to determine the standalone selling price of each performance obligation identified in the contract. The Company then allocates the total transaction price to each performance obligation based on the estimated standalone selling prices of each performance obligation. The Company recognizes the amount of the transaction price as revenue that is allocated to the respective performance obligation when the performance obligation is satisfied or as it is satisfied.

The Company enters into collaboration arrangements, under which it licenses certain rights to its intellectual property to third parties. The terms of these agreements may include payment to the Company of one or more of the following: nonrefundable upfront license fees; development, sale and commercial milestone payments and royalties on net sales of licensed products. Each of these types of payments are classified as license revenue except for revenue from royalties on net sales of licensed products, which are classified as royalty revenue.

For each collaboration agreement that results in revenues, the Company identifies all material promised goods and services, which may include a license to intellectual property, research and development activities and/or transition activities. Promised goods or services are considered to be separate performance obligations if they are distinct. In order to determine the transaction price to be allocated to each performance obligation, in addition to any upfront payment, the Company estimates the amount of variable consideration at the outset of the contract either utilizing the expected value or most likely amount method, depending on the facts and circumstances relative to the contract. The Company constrains (reduces) the estimates of variable consideration such that it is probable that a significant reversal of previously recognized revenue will not occur throughout the life of the contract. When determining if variable consideration should be constrained, management considers whether there are factors outside the Company’s control that could result in a significant reversal of revenue. In making these assessments, the Company considers the likelihood and magnitude of a potential reversal of revenue. These estimates are re-assessed each reporting period as required.

Once the estimated transaction price is established, amounts are allocated to the performance obligations that have been identified. The transaction price is generally allocated to each separate performance obligation on a relative standalone selling price basis. The Company must develop assumptions that require judgment to determine the standalone selling price (SSP) in order to account for these agreements. To determine the standalone selling price the Company’s assumptions may include (i) assumptions regarding the probability of obtaining marketing approval for the drug candidate; (ii) estimates regarding the timing of and the expected costs to develop and commercialize the drug candidate; (iii) estimates of future cash flows from potential product sales with respect to the drug candidate; and (iv) appropriate discount and tax rates. Standalone selling prices used to perform the initial allocation are not updated after contract inception. The Company does not include a financing component to its estimated transaction price at contract inception unless it estimates that certain performance obligations will not be satisfied within one year.

Upfront License Fees: If a license to the Company’s intellectual property is determined to be distinct from the other performance obligations identified in the arrangement, the Company recognizes revenues from nonrefundable, upfront license fees based on the relative value prescribed to the license compared to the total value of the arrangement. The revenue is recognized when the license is transferred to the collaborator and the collaborator is able to use and benefit from the license.  For licenses that are not distinct from other obligations identified in the arrangement, the Company utilizes judgment to assess the nature of the combined performance obligation to determine whether the combined performance obligation is satisfied over time or at a point in time. If the combined performance obligation is satisfied over time, the Company applies an appropriate method of measuring progress for purposes of recognizing revenue from nonrefundable, upfront license fees.  The Company evaluates the measure of progress each reporting period and, if necessary, adjusts the measure of performance and related revenue recognition.

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Development Milestone Payments: Depending on facts and circumstances, the Company may conclude it is appropriate to include the milestone in the estimated transaction price using the most likely amount method or it is appropriate to fully constrain the milestone. A milestone payment is included in the transaction price in the reporting period the Company concludes that it is probable that recording revenue in the period will not result in a significant reversal in amounts recognized in future periods. The Company may record revenues from certain milestones in a reporting period before the milestone is achieved if the Company concludes that achievement of the milestone is probable and that recognition of revenue related to the milestone will not result in a significant reversal in amounts recognized in future periods. The Company records a corresponding contract asset when this conclusion is reached. Milestone payments that have not been included in the transaction price to date are fully constrained. These milestones remain fully constrained until the Company concludes that achievement of the milestone is probable and recognition of revenue related to the milestone will not result in a significant reversal in amounts recognized in future periods. The Company re-evaluates the probability of achievement of such development milestones and any related constraint each reporting period. The Company adjusts its estimate of the overall transaction price, including the amount of collaborative revenue that it has recorded, if necessary.  

Sales-based Milestone and Royalty Payments: The Company’s collaborators may be required to pay the Company sales-based milestone payments or royalties on future sales of commercial products.  The Company recognizes revenues related to sales-based milestone and royalty payments upon the later to occur of (i) achievement of the collaborator’s underlying sales or (ii) satisfaction of any performance obligation(s) related to these sales, in each case assuming the license to the Company’s intellectual property is deemed to be the predominant item to which the sales-based milestones and/or royalties relate. 

Grant Income

Grant income is recognized as earned based on contract work performed.

Research and Development

Costs incurred in connection with research and development activities are expensed as incurred. Research and development expense consists of (i) employee-related expenses, including salaries, benefits, travel and stock-based compensation expense, (ii) external research and development expenses incurred under arrangements with third parties, such as contract research organizations and consultants, (iii) the cost of acquiring, developing and manufacturing clinical study materials, and (iv) costs associated with preclinical activities and regulatory operations.

The Company enters into consulting, research and other agreements with commercial firms, researchers, universities, and others for the provision of goods and services. Under such agreements, the Company may pay for services on a monthly, quarterly, project, or other basis. Such arrangements are generally cancellable upon reasonable notice and payment of costs incurred. Costs are considered incurred based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks under each contract using information and data provided to the Company by its clinical sites and vendors. These costs consist of direct and indirect costs associated with specific projects, as well as fees paid to various entities that perform certain research on behalf of the Company.

Patents

Costs incurred in connection with the application for and issuances of patents are expensed as incurred.

Income Taxes

Income taxes are recorded in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 740, Income Taxes, or ASC 740, which provides for deferred taxes using an asset and liability approach. The Company recognizes deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been included in the condensed consolidated financial statements or tax returns. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined based on the difference between the condensed consolidated financial statement and tax bases of assets and liabilities and for loss and credit carryforwards using enacted tax rates anticipated to be in effect for the year in which the differences are expected to reverse. Valuation allowances are provided, if, based upon the weight of available evidence, it is more likely than not that some or all of the deferred tax assets will not be realized.

The Company accounts for uncertain tax positions in accordance with the provisions of ASC 740. When uncertain tax positions exist, the Company recognizes the tax benefit of tax positions to the extent that the benefit will more likely than not be realized. The determination as to whether the tax benefit will more likely than not be realized is based upon the technical merits of the tax position, as well as consideration of the available facts and circumstances. As of March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, the Company does not have any uncertain tax positions. The Company recognizes interest and penalties related to uncertain tax positions, if any exist, in income tax expense.

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Net and Comprehensive Loss per Share

The Company’s basic net and comprehensive loss per share is calculated by dividing the net and comprehensive loss by the weighted average number of shares of common stock outstanding for the period. The diluted net and comprehensive loss per share attributable to common stockholders is computed by adjusting the weighted average shares outstanding for the dilutive effect of common stock equivalents outstanding for the period, determined using the treasury stock method.

Stock-Based Compensation

The Company accounts for its stock-based compensation awards in accordance with ASC Topic 718, Compensation – Stock Compensation, or ASC 718.  ASC 718 requires all stock-based payments to employees, including grants of employee stock options, to be recognized in the condensed consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive net loss based on their fair values. All the Company’s stock-based awards are subject only to service-based vesting conditions. The Company estimates the fair value of its stock-based awards using the Black-Scholes option pricing model, which requires the input of assumptions, including (a) the expected stock price volatility, (b) the calculation of expected term of the award, (c) the risk-free interest rate, and (d) expected dividends.

Due to the historical lack of significant trading on a public market of the Company’s common stock and a lack of company-specific historical and implied volatility data, the Company has based its estimate of expected volatility on the historical volatility of a group of similar companies that are publicly traded. The computation of expected volatility is based on the historical volatility of a representative group of companies with similar characteristics to the Company, including stage of product development and life science industry focus. The Company believes the group selected has sufficient similar economic and industry characteristics and includes companies that are most representative of the Company.

The Company uses the simplified method as prescribed by the SEC Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 107, Share-Based Payment, to calculate the expected term, as it does not have sufficient historical exercise data to provide a reasonable basis upon which to estimate the expected term for options granted to employees and utilizes the contractual term for options granted to non-employees. The expected term is applied to the stock option grant group as a whole, as the Company does not expect substantially different exercise or post-vesting termination behavior among its employee population. The risk-free interest rate is based on a treasury instrument whose term is consistent with the expected life of the stock options.

Compensation expense related to awards to employees is calculated on a straight-line basis by recognizing the grant date fair value over the associated service period of the award which is generally the vesting term.

Fair Value of Financial Instruments

The Company’s financial instruments consist of cash and cash equivalents, accounts payable and accrued expenses. The Company values cash equivalents using quoted market prices. The fair value of accounts payable and accrued expenses approximates its carrying value because of its short-term nature.

The Company is required to disclose information on all assets and liabilities reported at fair value that enables an assessment of the inputs used in determining the reported fair values. ASC Topic 820, Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures, or ASC 820, establishes a hierarchy of inputs used in measuring fair value that maximizes the use of observable inputs and minimizes the use of unobservable inputs by requiring that the observable inputs be used when available.

Observable inputs are inputs that market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability based on market data obtained from sources independent of the Company. Unobservable inputs are inputs that reflect the Company’s assumptions about the inputs that market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability and are developed based on the best information available in the circumstances. The fair value hierarchy applies only to the valuation inputs used in determining the reported fair value of the investments and is not a measure of the investment credit quality. The three levels of the fair value hierarchy are described below:

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To the extent that a valuation is based on models or inputs that are less observable or unobservable in the market, the determination of fair value requires more judgment. Accordingly, the degree of judgment exercised by the Company in determining fair value is greatest for instruments categorized in Level 3. A financial instrument’s level within the fair value hierarchy is based on the lowest level of any input that is significant to the fair value measurement. There were no transfers within the fair value hierarchy during the three months ended March 31, 2019. The assets of the Company measured at fair value on a recurring basis as of March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, are summarized below:  

Concentrations of Credit Risk and Off-Balance Sheet Risk

Cash and cash equivalents are the only financial instruments that potentially subject the Company to concentrations of credit risk. At March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018,  the Company maintains its cash and cash equivalents with high-quality, accredited financial institutions and, accordingly, such funds are subject to minimal credit risk. The Company has no significant off-balance sheet concentrations of credit risk, such as foreign currency exchange contracts, option contracts or other hedging arrangements.

Comprehensive Loss

Comprehensive loss is defined as the change in equity of a business enterprise during a period from transactions and other events and circumstances from non-owner sources, if any. Comprehensive loss equaled net loss for all periods presented.

Furniture and Equipment

Furniture and equipment is stated at cost, less accumulated depreciation. Furniture and equipment is depreciated using the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the assets, generally three to seven years. Such costs are periodically reviewed for recoverability when impairment indicators are present. Such indicators include, among other factors, operating losses, unused capacity, market value declines, and technological obsolescence. Recorded values of asset groups of furniture and equipment that are not expected to be recovered through undiscounted future net cash flows are written down to current fair value, which generally is determined from estimated discounted future net cash flows (assets held for use) or net realizable value (assets held for sale).

Leases

At the inception of an arrangement the Company determines whether the arrangement is or contains a lease based on the unique and circumstances present. All leases with a term greater than one year are recognized on the condensed consolidated balance sheet as right-of-use assets, lease liabilities and, if applicable, long-term lease liabilities. The Company has elected not to recognize on the condensed consolidated balance sheet leases with terms of one-year or less if entered into. Lease liabilities and their corresponding right-of-use assets are recorded based on the present value of lease payments over the expected lease term. The interest rate implicit in lease contracts is typically not readily determinable. As such, the Company utilizes the appropriate incremental borrowing rate, which is the rate incurred to borrow on a collateralized basis over a similar term an amount equal to the lease payments in a similar economic environment. Certain adjustments to the right-of-use asset may be required for items such as initial direct costs paid or incentives received.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

From time to time, new accounting pronouncements are issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) or other standard setting bodies and adopted by the Company as of the specified effective date. Unless otherwise discussed, the Company believes the impact of recently issued standards that are not yet effective will not have a material impact on its condensed consolidated financial position or results of operations upon adoption.

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In May 2014, the FASB issued amended guidance for revenue recognition, Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2014-09, “Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606).” This ASU outlines a single comprehensive model for entities to use in accounting for revenue arising from contracts with customers. The core principle of the guidance is that an entity should recognize revenue for the transfer of promised goods or services to customers in an amount that reflects the consideration to which the entity expects to be entitled in exchange for those goods and services. Additionally, the ASU requires improved disclosure to help users of financial statements better understand the nature, amount, timing and uncertainty of revenue that is recognized. The Company adopted the new guidance on January 1, 2018, as it relates to the Agreement discussed in Footnote 11.  

In February 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-02, Leases, to enhance the transparency and comparability of financial reporting related to leasing arrangements. Under this new lease standard, leases are required to be recognized on the balance sheet as right-of-use assets and operating lease liabilities. Disclosure requirements have been enhanced with the objective of enabling financial statement users to assess the amount, timing, and uncertainty of cash flows arising from leases. The Company adopted the new guidance on January 1, 2019. See additional discussion in Footnote 9.

In July 2018, the FASB issued ASU 2018-11, Leases, Targeted Improvements, (“ASU 2018-11”), which contains certain amendments to ASU 2016-02 intended to provide relief in implementing the new standard. ASU 2018-11 provides registrants with an option to not restate comparative periods presented in the financial statements. The Company adopted this new standard on January 1, 2019 (the “adoption date”) using a cumulative-effect adjustment on the effective date of the standard, for which comparative periods are presented in accordance with the previous guidance in ASC 840, Leases.

In adopting the new standard, the Company elected to utilize the available package of practical expedients permitted under the transition guidance within the new standard The expedients used by the Company are as follows: (1) allowing an entity to not reassess the lease classification for any expired or existing leases, (2) allowing an entity to not reassess the treatment of initial direct costs as they related to existing leases, and (3) allowing an entity to not reassess whether expired or existing contracts are or contain leases. Additionally, the Company made an accounting policy election to keep leases with a term of 12 months or less off of its condensed consolidated balance sheet. The Company adopted the new guidance on January 1, 2019. See additional discussion in Footnote 9.

In August 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-15, “Statement of Cash Flows (Topic 230).” The objective of this ASU is to provide additional guidance and reduce diversity in practice when classifying certain transactions within the statement of cash flows. The Company adopted this ASU as of January 1, 2018.  The adoption of this ASU did not have a material impact on the Company’s condensed consolidated financial statements.

In November 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-18, “Statement of Cash Flows (Topic 230): Restricted Cash.” This ASU requires that the statement of cash flows explain the change during the period in the total of cash, cash equivalents, and amounts generally described as restricted cash or restricted cash equivalents. This ASU is effective for financial statements issued for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2017, including interim periods within those fiscal years. The Company adopted this ASU as of January 1, 2018.  The adoption of this ASU did not have a material impact on the Company’s condensed consolidated financial statements.

In May 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-09, “Stock Compensation - Scope of Modification Accounting.” This ASU provides clarification around which changes to the terms or conditions of a share-based payment award require the application of modification accounting under ASC 718. The Company adopted this ASU as of January 1, 2018. The adoption of this ASU did not have a material impact on the Company’s condensed consolidated financial statements.

In June 2018, the FASB issued ASU 2018-07, “Improvements to Nonemployee Share-Based Payment Accounting.” This ASU improves financial reporting for share-based payments issued to nonemployees under ASC 718 by expanding the scope of the employee share-based payments guidance to include share-based payments issued to nonemployees. The amendments in this ASU are effective for public companies for fiscal years beginning after December 31, 2018, including interim periods within that fiscal year.

The Company adopted this ASU as of January 1, 2019 and recorded a one-time cumulative adjustment of $5,717 upon adoption  

No other new accounting pronouncement recently issued or newly effective had or is expected to have a material impact on the Company’s condensed consolidated financial statements.

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3. Accounts Payable and Accrued Expenses

Accounts payable and accrued expenses are as follows:

4. Common Stock

As of March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, the Company had 300,000,000 shares of authorized common stock with par value of $0.0001 per share. 

The common stock has the following characteristics:  

Voting

The holders of common stock are entitled to one vote for each share of common stock held at all meetings of stockholders and written actions in lieu of meetings.

Dividends

The holders of common stock are entitled to receive dividends, if and when declared by the Board of Directors. Since the Company’s inception, no dividends have been declared or paid to the holders of common stock.

Liquidation

In the event of any voluntary or involuntary liquidation, dissolution, or winding-up of the Company, the holders of common stock are entitled to share ratably in the Company’s assets.  

Warrants to Purchase Common Stock

At March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, the Company had warrants outstanding for the purchase of 317,562 shares of the Company’s common stock at an exercise price of $5.00 per share.  The warrants have a three-year term and expire on March 15, 2020.  At the expiration date of the warrant, if the fair value of the Company’s common stock exceeds the exercise price, the warrant will be automatically exercised and the exercise price will be fulfilled through the net share settlement provisions.  The number of shares and the exercise price shall be adjusted for standard anti-dilution events such as stock splits, combinations, reorganizations, or issue shares as part of a stock dividend.  Upon a change of control, the warrant holder will have the right to receive securities, cash or other properties it would have been entitled to receive had the warrant been exercised. The warrants are equity classified instruments and do not contain contingent exercise provisions, or other features, that would preclude the Company from concluding that the warrants are indexed solely to the Company’s common stock.  

5. Preferred Stock

As of March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, the Company had 10,000,000 shares of preferred stock, par value $0.0001 per share, in authorized capital.  No preferred stock was issued and outstanding at March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018.

6. Stock-Based Compensation

In March 2017, the Company’s Board of Directors adopted, and the stockholders approved, the 2017 Stock Option and Incentive Plan (the “2017 Plan”), that became effective in April 2017.  The 2017 Plan provides for the issuance of incentive awards up to 4,600,000 shares of common stock to officers, employees, consultants and directors, less the number of shares subject to issued and outstanding awards under the 2011 Plan that were assumed in the Merger.  The 2017 Plan also provides that the number of shares reserved for issuance thereunder will be increased annually on the first day of each year beginning in 2018 by four percent (4%) of the shares of our common stock outstanding on the last day of the immediately preceding year or such smaller increase as determined by our Board of Directors. In March 2019, the Company’s Board of Directors approved a 4% increase adding 1,623,520 shares to the 2017 Plan, which increase was effective as of January 1, 2019.

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Stock Options

The options granted generally vest over 48 months. Under the 2017 Plan, options vest in installments of 25% at the one-year anniversary and thereafter in 36 equal monthly installments beginning on the 1^st of the month after the one-year anniversary date, subject to the employee’s continuous service with the Company. The options generally expire ten years after the date of grant. The fair value of the options at the date of grant is recognized as an expense over the requisite service period.

As of March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, 2,762,254 and 2,959,562 shares are reserved for issuance under the 2017 Plan, respectively.

The following table summarizes the stock option activity during the three months ended March 31, 2019:

Aggregate intrinsic value represents the estimated fair value of the Company’s common stock at in excess of the weighted average exercise price multiplied by the number of options outstanding or exercisable.  

For the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018, the Company recognized compensation expense for stock options of $621,685 and $731,373, respectively. As of March 31, 2019, there was $6,675,120 of unrecognized compensation cost related to stock options, which is expected to be recognized over a weighted average period of 3.07 years.

Restricted Stock

The Company recognized compensation expense for restricted stock of $0 and $348,348 for the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively. All restricted stock vested in October 2018.

Compensation Expense Summary

The Company recognized the following compensation cost related to employee and non-employee stock-based compensation activity:

The Company uses the Black-Scholes option pricing model to determine the estimated fair value for stock-based awards. Option pricing and models require the input of various assumptions, including the option’s expected life, expected dividend yield, price volatility and risk-free interest rate of the underlying stock. Accordingly, the weighted-average fair value of the options granted during the three months ended March 31, 2019 was $1.87 per share. The calculation was based on the following assumptions.

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7. Income Taxes

The Company did not record a current or deferred income tax expense or benefit for the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018 due to the Company’s net losses and increases in its deferred tax asset valuation allowance.

8. Net and Comprehensive Loss per Share

The following table sets forth the computation of the Company’s basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders for the periods presented:  

The following weighted average common stock equivalents were excluded from the calculation of basic and diluted net and comprehensive loss per share attributable to common stockholders for the three-month periods presented:

9. Leases

The Company leases certain properties and buildings under various arrangements which provide the right to use the underlying asset and require lease payments for the lease term.   Many of the property and building lease agreements obligate the Company to pay real estate taxes, insurance and certain maintenance costs (hereinafter referred to as non-lease components). Certain of the Company’s lease arrangements contain renewal provisions from 1 to 3 years, exercisable at the Company's option. The Company’s lease agreements do not contain any material residual value guarantees or material restrictive covenants.

The Company determines if an arrangement is an operating lease at inception. Leases with an initial term of 12 months or less are not recorded on the balance sheet. All other leases are recorded on the balance sheet with a corresponding operating lease asset, net, representing the right to use the underlying asset for the lease term and the operating lease liabilities representing the obligation to make lease payments arising from the lease.

Operating lease assets and operating lease liabilities are recognized at commencement date based on the present value of lease payments over the lease term and include options to extend or terminate the lease when they are reasonably certain to be exercised. The present value of lease payments is determined primarily using the incremental borrowing rate based on the information available at lease commencement date. Lease agreements with lease and non-lease components are generally accounted for as a single lease component. The Company’s operating lease expense is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term and are recorded in general and administrative expenses on the condensed consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss.  

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The following table presents the lease cost and information related to the right-of-use assets and operating lease liabilities:    

As of March 31, 2019, future payments related to operating leases activities are presented in the table below:

10.  Employee Stock Purchase Plan

In March 2017, the Board of Directors adopted and the stockholders approved the Employee Stock Purchase Plan that became effective in April 2017.  On June 20, 2018, the Company’s shareholders approved the Amended and Restated 2017 Employee Stock Purchase Plan ("ESPP") at the Annual Meeting of Shareholders.  Pursuant to the terms of the ESPP, the Company will reserve for issuance 300,000 shares of the Company's common stock in the aggregate, plus, on January 1, 2019 and each January 1 thereafter through January 1, 2028, the number of shares of the Company's common stock reserved and available for issuance under the ESPP will be cumulatively increased by the least of (i) one percent of the number of shares of the Company’s common stock issued and outstanding on the immediately preceding December 31; (ii) 350,000 shares; or (iii) such lesser number of shares of the Company’s common stock as determined by the Board of Directors, in each case subject to adjustment in accordance with the terms of the ESPP. In March 2019, the Company’s Board of Directors approved an increase of 350,000 shares to the ESPP, which increase was effective as of January 1, 2019. No shares under the ESPP are outstanding at March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018.  

11.  License Agreement

On June 24, 2018, the Company entered into a License Agreement (the “Agreement”) with a wholly-owned subsidiary of Gossamer Bio, Inc., GB004, Inc. (collectively “Gossamer”), under which the Company granted Gossamer an exclusive, sublicensable license to develop and commercialize AKB-4924 and other structurally related products worldwide, with initial development expected in the indications of induction and maintenance in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s Disease (collectively “initial indications”).

Gossamer is responsible for the development and commercialization of the licensed products, and a joint development committee has been formed to oversee the development and manufacturing activities related to the licensed products. Under the terms of the Agreement, Gossamer is obligated to use its commercially reasonable efforts to develop and commercialize licensed products in the United States, two major European countries and Japan for at least one of the initial indications. The Agreement includes an exclusivity provision that prohibits the Company from developing, manufacturing or commercializing, and prohibits Gossamer from clinically developing or commercializing certain HIF stabilizing compounds other than as permitted in the Agreement. Pursuant to the terms of the Agreement, Gossamer made an upfront payment to the Company of $20.0 million on June 28, 2018, which was fully recognized in 2018 (in accordance with ASC 606).  

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The Company is also eligible to receive development, commercial and sales milestone payments, with such payments contingent on the achievement of specified milestones with respect to the first licensed product for each of the first two initial indications. The Company is also eligible to receive tiered royalties on sales of licensed products at percentages ranging from a high-single-digit to mid-teens, subject to certain customary reductions. In addition, under certain circumstances, in lieu of receiving the foregoing milestone payments and royalties, the Company may elect to receive a specified percentage of payments received by Gossamer and its stockholders (with some exclusions) in connection with Gossamer’s grant of a sublicense or other rights to the licensed products or if Gossamer undergoes a change of control and the value of the transaction exceeds a certain value (provided that Gossamer can prevent the Company from exercising this option if the parent company of Gossamer is the entity undergoing the change of control). Conversely, the Company could be required to accept such a specified percentage of those payments if Gossamer agrees to pay the Company a certain minimum upon Gossamer and its stockholders being paid. Such amount may be reduced if the subject transaction includes pharmaceutical candidates or products or other named asset categories in addition to the licensed products.

The Agreement expires on a licensed-product-by-licensed-product and country-by-country basis on the later of fifteen years from the date of first commercial sale or when there is no longer a valid patent claim covering such licensed product in such country. Either party may terminate the Agreement for an uncured material breach by the other party or upon the bankruptcy or insolvency of the other party. Gossamer may terminate the Agreement in the event Gossamer determines there is a potential safety or efficacy issue with the licensed products. The Company may terminate the Agreement if Gossamer institutes certain actions related to the licensed patents. Under certain termination circumstances, the Company would have worldwide rights to the terminated program.  

As of March 31, 2019 all development milestones, sales-based milestones and royalty payments within the Agreement are constrained to the point where no transaction price has been allocated to the future milestones or royalty payments.  

12.  Subsequent Event

On April 1, 2019, the Company’s board of directors approved a realignment plan to reduce operating costs and better align its workforce with the needs of its ongoing business. The realignment plan reduces its current workforce by 11 employees, representing approximately 41% of the Company’s workforce. The Company estimates it will incur one-time aggregate expenses of approximately $0.9 million for employee related costs, including severance benefits, payment of healthcare insurance premiums and outplacement assistance for specified periods.

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CAUTIONARY STATEMENT REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q contains express or implied forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act and Section 21E of the Exchange Act that are based on our management’s belief and assumptions and on information currently available to our management. Although we believe that the expectations reflected in these forward-looking statements are reasonable, these statements relate to future events or our future operational or financial performance, and involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from any future results, performance or achievements expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements. Forward-looking statements in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q include, but are not limited to, statements about:

In some cases, forward-looking statements can be identified by terminology such as “may,” “should,” “expects,” “intends,” “plans,” “anticipates,” “believes,” “estimates,” “predicts,” “potential,” “continue” or the negative of these terms or other comparable terminology. These statements are only predictions. You should not place undue reliance on forward-looking statements because they involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors, which are, in some cases, beyond our control and which could materially affect results. Factors that may cause actual results to differ materially from current expectations include, among other things, those listed under the section entitled “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q. If one or more of these risks or uncertainties occur, or if our underlying assumptions prove to be incorrect, actual events or results may vary significantly from those implied or projected by the forward-looking statements. No forward-looking statement is a guarantee of future performance. You should read this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q and the documents that we reference in Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q and have filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission as exhibits hereto completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from any future results expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements.

The forward-looking statements in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q represent our views as of the date of this Report. We anticipate that subsequent events and developments will cause our views to change. However, while we may elect to update these forward-looking statements at some point in the future, we have no current intention of doing so except to the extent required by applicable law. You should therefore not rely on these forward-looking statements as representing our views as of any date subsequent to the date of this Report.

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Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The following discussion of the financial condition and results of operations of Aerpio Pharmaceuticals, Inc. should be read in conjunction with the condensed consolidated financial statements and the notes to those statements included in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the period ended March 31, 2019. Some of the information contained in this discussion and analysis including information with respect to our plans and strategy for our business, includes forward-looking statements that involve risk, uncertainties and assumptions. You should read the “Risk Factors” section of our Annual Report on Form 10K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2018 for a discussion of important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from the results described in or implied by the forward-looking statements contained in the following discussion and analysis.

Operating Overview

We are a biopharmaceutical company focused on developing compounds that activate Tie2 to treat ocular diseases and diabetic complications.

In March 2019, we announced the top line results of the Phase 2b (TIME-2b) clinical trial which we initiated in June 2017 for the treatment of non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy, or NPDR, a disease characterized by progressive compromise of blood vessels in the back of the eye. While we believed AKB-9778 had the potential to slow down or possibly reverse retinal vascular changes caused by diabetes, the subcutaneous administration of AKB-9778 twice daily did not meet the study’s primary endpoint of increasing the percentage of patients with an improvement of two or more steps in diabetic retinopathy severity score, or DRSS, in the study eye, compared to placebo.

AKB-9778 showed encouraging data in a number of prespecified, key secondary endpoints, consistent with the observations in the prior Phase 2a (TIME-2) trial related to the changes in the Urine Albumin-Creatinine Ratio or UACR, a measure of kidney function.  In a post-hoc analysis of the earlier TIME-2 clinical trial, there was a 21% reduction (geometric mean) in UACR from baseline in the AKB-9778 treatment arms, but an overall increase in UACR in the placebo arm.  The prospective UACR analyses from the recently completed TIME-2b trial largely replicated the results from the previous trial and reinforced the potential beneficial effects of Tie2 activation in diabetic kidney disease.

AKB-9778 also showed encouraging data for reducing intraocular pressure in primary open angle glaucoma, or POAG, and ocular hypertension. We plan to advance a topical drop formulation of AKB-9778 into clinical development and expect to initiate a Phase 1b clinical trial in the second quarter of 2019 with results anticipated by the end of 2019.

ARP-1536, our humanized monoclonal antibody directed at the same target as AKB-9778, is in preclinical development. We are evaluating development options for ARP-1536, including subcutaneous injection for the treatment of diabetic vascular complications.

In June 2018, we licensed AKB-4924, a selective stabilizer of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha, or HIF-1 alpha to Gossamer Bio, Inc. (“Gossamer”) AKB-4924, (now called GB004), is being developed for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). HIF-1 alpha is involved in mucosal wound healing and the reduction of inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. Gossamer is currently conducting a multiple ascending dose, or MAD study and is responsible for all remaining development and commercial activities for GB004.

Except for the license agreement we entered into with Gossamer in June 2018, our operations to date have been limited to organizing and staffing our Company, business planning, raising capital, acquiring and developing our technology, identifying potential product candidates and undertaking preclinical and clinical studies. There can be no assurance of future revenues either from future payments related to the Gossamer license, transition services or from our product candidates. Our product candidates are subject to long development cycles, and there is no assurance we will be able to successfully develop, obtain regulatory approval for, or market our product candidates. As of March 31, 2019, we had an accumulated deficit of $127.5 million and anticipate incurring additional losses for the next several years.

Our primary source of liquidity to date has been through public and private sales of our common stock, redeemable convertible preferred stock, convertible debt and the proceeds from the Gossamer License Agreement. We will need to raise additional funds to further advance our clinical research programs, commence additional clinical trials and commercialize our products, if approved. While we continue to pursue financing alternatives, which may include equity financing, business development arrangements, licensing arrangements and business combination transactions, financing may not be available to us in the necessary time frame, in the amounts that we need, on terms that are acceptable to us or at all. If we are unable to raise the necessary funds when needed or reduce spending on currently planned activities, we may not be able to continue the development of our product candidates or we could be required to delay, scale back or eliminate some or all of our development programs and other operations and will materially harm our business and consolidated financial position.

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We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future as a result of our ongoing activities. We are subject to a number of risks similar to other life science companies in the current stage of our life cycle, including, but not limited to, the need to obtain adequate additional funding, possible failure of preclinical testing or clinical trials, competitors developing new technological innovations, and protection of proprietary technology. If we do not successfully mitigate any of these risks, we will be unable to generate revenue or achieve profitability.

The Company’s inability to obtain required funding in the near future could have a material adverse effect on its operations and strategic development plan for future growth. If the Company cannot successfully raise additional capital and implement its strategic development plan, its liquidity, financial condition and business prospects will be materially and adversely affected, and the Company may have to cease operations.   Based on the Company’s current cash reserves of $53.4 million at March 31, 2019 and financial condition as of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, we believe our existing cash and cash equivalent will be sufficient to fund currently planned operations at least through the second quarter of fiscal year 2021.

Basis of Presentation

The following discussion highlights Aerpio’s results of operations and the principal factors that have affected our financial condition as well as our liquidity and capital resources for the periods described and provides information that management believes is relevant for an assessment and understanding of the consolidated balance sheets and the consolidated statements of operation and comprehensive loss presented herein. The following discussion and analysis are based on the Company’s condensed consolidated financial statements contained in this Form 10-Q, which we have prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. You should read the discussion and analysis together with such condensed consolidated financial statements and the related notes thereto.

Components of Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Loss

Operating Expenses

Research and Development  

Research and development expenses are expensed as incurred. Research and development expenses consist primarily of (i) employee-related expenses, including salaries, benefits, travel, and stock-based compensation expense, (ii) external research and development expenses incurred under arrangements with third parties, such as contract research organizations and consultants, (iii) the cost of acquiring, developing, and manufacturing clinical study materials, and (iv) costs associated with preclinical activities and regulatory operations.  

General and Administrative   

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of compensation and related costs for our finance, human resources and other administrative personnel, including stock-based compensation, employee benefits and travel. In addition, general and administrative expenses include third-party consulting, legal, patent, audit, accounting services and facilities costs. We expect to continue to incur general and administrative expenses due to additional legal, accounting, insurance, investor relations and other costs associated with being a public company, as well as other costs associated with growing our business.

Interest Income

Interest income consists primarily of interest income received on cash and cash equivalents.  

Grant Income

Grant income is recognized as earned based on contract work performed.

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Results of Operations

The following table presents the results of operations for the periods presented:

Comparison of the Three Months Ended March 31, 2019 and 2018  

Operating Expenses

Research and Development

Research and development expenses for the three months ended March 31, 2019 increased approximately $1.6 million or 38.7%, compared to the three months ended March 31, 2018. This was the result of increased spending on AKB-9778, offset by a reduction of expenses related to AKB-4924.  Research and development expenses are primarily attributed to the costs of the AKB-9778 Phase 2 clinical trial which concluded during the first quarter of 2019.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses for the three months ended March 31, 2019, decreased approximately $0.2 million, or 5.6%, compared to the three months ended March 31, 2018. This decrease was primarily attributable to a decrease in stock-based compensation of $0.6 million offset by an increase in patent legal expenses of $0.2 million.  

Other Income

Grant Income

Grant income is recognized as earned based on contract work performed. Grant income amounts can vary greatly from period to period depending on the funding and needs of the party for whom we perform the requested services.

Interest Income

Interest income in the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018, reflects interest earned on short term money market instruments. The net proceeds from our underwritten public offering in June 2018 and upfront payment received in conjunction with the execution of the license agreement with Gossamer in June 2018, less cash used in operations, were available for investment and generated more interest income in the three months ended March 31, 2019, compared to the prior period.      

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Liquidity and Capital Resources

Since inception, we have incurred significant net and comprehensive losses and negative cash flows from operations. For the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018, we had net and comprehensive loss of $8.5 million and $7.4 million, respectively. At March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, we had an accumulated deficit of $127.5 million and $119.0 million, respectively.

At March 31, 2019, we had cash and cash equivalents of $53.4 million. To date, we have financed our operations principally through private and public offerings of our equity securities, private placements of our redeemable convertible preferred stock, common stock, issuances of secured convertible promissory notes and proceeds from the license agreement with Gossamer.  Based on our current plans, we expect that our existing cash and cash equivalents, will enable us to conduct our planned operations at least through the second quarter of fiscal 2021.

In February 2018, we filed a shelf registration statement on Form S-3 with the SEC which was declared effective by the Securities and Exchange Commission on April 11, 2018 (the “Form S-3”). The shelf registration statement allows us to sell from time-to-time up to $150.0 million of common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants, or units comprised of any combination of these securities, for our own account in one or more offerings. The shelf registration statement is intended to provide us flexibility to conduct registered sales of our securities, subject to market conditions and our future capital needs. The terms of any offering under the shelf registration statement will be established at the time of such offering and will be described in a prospectus supplement filed with the SEC prior to the completion of any such offering.

Additionally, on February 21, 2018, and pursuant to the Form S-3, we entered into a Controlled Equity Offering Sales Agreement (the “Sales Agreement”) with Cantor Fitzgerald & Co. (“Cantor”), pursuant to which we may issue and sell, from time to time, shares of our common stock having an aggregate offering price of up to $75.0 million through Cantor as our sales agent. Cantor may sell our common stock by any method permitted by law deemed to be an “at the market offering” as defined in Rule 415(a)(4) of the Securities Act, including sales made directly on or through the Nasdaq Capital Market or any other existing trade market for our common stock, in negotiated transactions at market prices prevailing at the time of sale or at prices related to prevailing market prices, or any other method permitted by law.  The shares of our common stock to be sold under the Sales Agreement will be sold and issued pursuant to the Form S-3 and the related prospectus and one or more prospectus supplements. We will pay Cantor 3.0% of the aggregate gross proceeds from each sale of shares under the Sales Agreement. As of March 31, 2019, no shares had been sold under this Sales Agreement.

We could potentially use our available financial resources sooner than we currently expect, and we may incur additional indebtedness to meet future operation liquidity. We continuously evaluate our needs for additional capital and consider opportunities on an ongoing basis, including capital from many different sources including equity capital, strategic alliances, business development debt, collaborations and business combinations.  Adequate additional funding may not be available to us on acceptable terms or at all. In addition, although we anticipate being able to obtain additional financing through non-dilutive means, we may be unable to do so. Our failure to raise capital as and when needed could have significant negative consequences for our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The following table summarizes our cash flows for the periods presented:

Operating Activities

We have historically experienced negative cash outflows as we developed AKB-9778, ARP-1536 and AKB-4924. Our net cash used in operating activities primarily results from our net loss adjusted for non-cash expenses, changes in working capital components, amounts due to contract research organizations to conduct our clinical programs and employee-related expenditures for research and development and general and administrative activities. Our cash flows from operating activities will continue to be affected by increased spending to advance and support our product candidates in the clinic and other operating and general administrative activities.

For the three months ended March 31, 2019, operating activities used $9.1 million in cash as result of $1.2 million of decrease in working capital and a net loss of approximately $8.5 million, offset by $0.6 million in non-cash expenses related to stock-based compensation and depreciation expense. For the three months ended March 31, 2018, operating activities used $6.5 million in cash, primarily as a result of a net loss of $7.4 million offset by $1.1 million of non-cash expenses, consisting of stock-based compensation expense, non-cash interest expense, amortization of debt issuance costs and depreciation expense.  

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Investing Activities

Cash used in investing activities for the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018 was related to capital expenditures to support operations.  

Financing Activities

For the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018, we received $0 and $21,922, respectively, from the exercise of stock options.

Contractual Obligations and Commitments  

There have been no material changes outside the ordinary course of business during the period covered by this Form 10-Q from the contractual obligations and commitments as of December 31, 2018 as described in our Annual Report on Form 10-K filed with the SEC on March 7, 2019.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

As of March 31, 2019 and December 31, 2018, we did not have any off-balance sheet arrangements as defined by applicable SEC regulations.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Our condensed consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles or GAAP. The preparation of these consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenue, expenses and related disclosures. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our estimates are based on historical experience and various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Our actual results could differ from these estimates.

We believe that the assumptions and estimates have the greatest potential impact on our condensed consolidated financial statements. Therefore, we consider these to be our critical accounting policies and estimates.

For further information on all our significant accounting policies, see the notes to our condensed financial statements.

JOBS Act Accounting Election

We are an “emerging growth company” within the meaning of the JOBS Act. Section 107 of the JOBS Act provides that an emerging growth company can take advantage of the extended transition period provided in Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act for complying with new or revised accounting standards. Thus, an emerging growth company can delay the adoption of certain accounting standards until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. We have irrevocably elected not to avail ourselves of this extended transition period and, as a result, we will adopt new or revised accounting standards on the relevant dates on which adoption of such standards is required for other public companies that are not emerging growth companies.

Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk.

We are a smaller reporting company, as defined by Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act and are not required to provide the information required by this Item.

Item 4. Controls and Procedures.

Management’s Evaluation of our Disclosure Controls and Procedures

Under the supervision of and with the participation of our management, including our Chief Executive Officer, who is our principal executive officer, and our Chief Financial Officer, who is our principal financial officer, we conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures as of March 31, 2019, the end of the period covered by this Quarterly Report. The term “disclosure controls and procedures,” as set forth in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, means controls and other procedures of a company that are designed to provide reasonable assurance that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is recorded, processed, summarized and reported, within the time periods specified in the rules and forms promulgated by the SEC. Disclosure controls and procedures include, without limitation, controls and procedures designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to the company’s management, including its principal executive and principal financial officers, as appropriate to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosure.

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In designing and evaluating our disclosure controls and procedures, management recognizes that disclosure controls and procedures, no matter how well conceived and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the objectives of the disclosure controls and procedures are met. Additionally, in designing disclosure controls and procedures, our management necessarily was required to apply its judgment in evaluating the cost-benefit relationship of possible disclosure controls and procedures. The design of any system of controls also is based in part upon certain assumptions about the likelihood of future events, and there can be no assurance that any design will succeed in achieving its stated goals under all potential future conditions; over time, controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or the degree of compliance with policies or procedures may deteriorate. Because of the inherent limitations in a control system, misstatements due to error or fraud may occur and not be detected.

Based on this evaluation, management concluded that our internal control over financial reporting was effective as of March 31, 2019.

Changes in Internal Control over Financial Reporting

During the quarter ended March 31, 2019, there have been no changes in our internal control over financial reporting, as such term is defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15(d)-15(f) promulgated under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, that have materially affected, or are reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

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PART II—OTHER INFORMATION

Item 1. Legal Proceedings.

We are not currently subject to any material legal proceedings.

Item 1A. Risk Factors.

Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the risks described below, as well as the other information in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, including our financial statements and the related notes and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,” as well as our other filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission, before deciding whether to invest in our common stock. The occurrence of any of the events or developments described below could harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and growth prospects. In such an event, the market price of our common stock could decline and you may lose all or part of your investment. Additional risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or that we currently deem immaterial also may impair our business operations.

Risks Related to Our Financial Position and Need for Additional Capital

We have incurred significant losses since inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future and may never achieve or maintain profitability.

We have incurred net losses each year since our inception, including net losses of $8.5 million and $7.4 million for the three months ended March 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively. As of March 31, 2019, we had an accumulated deficit of $127.5 million. To date, we have not commercialized any products or generated any revenues from the sale of products, and we do not expect to generate any product revenues in the foreseeable future. We do not know whether or when we will generate revenue or become profitable.

We have devoted most of our financial resources to research and development, including our clinical and preclinical development activities. The amount of our future net losses will depend, in part, on the rate of our future expenditures, and our financial position will depend, in part, on our ability to obtain funding through equity or debt financings, strategic collaborations or grants. We plan to initiate a Phase 1b clinical trial in the second quarter of 2019 for our lead product candidate, AKB-9778, for a topical drop formulation to treat primary open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension.  Our other product candidates, including ARP-1536, are in preclinical development. As a result, we expect that it will be several years, if ever, before we have a product candidate ready for commercialization. Even if we obtain regulatory approval to market AKB-9778 or any of our other product candidates, our future revenues will depend upon the size of any markets in which AKB-9778 or any of our other product candidates has received approval, our ability to achieve sufficient market acceptance, reimbursement from third-party payors and other factors.

We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future. We anticipate that our expenses will likely increase significantly if and as we:

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with pharmaceutical product development, we are unable to accurately predict the timing or amount of increased expenses or when, if at all, we will be able to achieve profitability. If we are required by the United States Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, the European Medicines Agency, or EMA, or other regulatory authorities to perform studies in addition to those currently expected, or if there are any delays in completing our clinical trials or the development of any of our product candidates, our expenses could increase.

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The net losses we incur may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year, such that a period-to-period comparison of our results of operations may not be a good indication of our future performance. In any particular quarter or quarters, our operating results could be below the expectations of securities analysts or investors, which could cause our stock price to decline.

To become and remain profitable, we must succeed in developing and commercializing our product candidates, which must generate significant revenue. This will require us to be successful in a range of challenging activities, including completing preclinical testing and clinical trials of our product candidates, discovering additional product candidates, obtaining regulatory approval for these product candidates and manufacturing, marketing and selling any products for which we may obtain regulatory approval. We are only in the preliminary stages of most of these activities. We may never succeed in these activities and, even if we do, may never generate revenues that are significant enough to achieve profitability.

Even if we do achieve profitability, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability on a quarterly or annual basis. Our failure to become and remain profitable could depress the value of our company and could impair our ability to raise capital, expand our business, maintain our research and development efforts, diversify our product offerings or even continue our operations. A decline in the value of our company could cause you to lose all or part of your investment.

We will require substantial additional financing. A failure to obtain this necessary capital when needed could force us to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or commercialization efforts.

As of March 31, 2019, our cash and cash equivalents were $53.4 million. We believe that we will continue to expend substantial resources for the foreseeable future developing AKB-9778 for the indications that we are pursuing, such as primary open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Additionally, we expect to expend substantial resources to further develop ARP-1536. We may also expend substantial resources to develop any other product candidates that we may develop or acquire. These expenditures will include costs associated with research and development, potentially obtaining regulatory approvals and having our products manufactured, as well as marketing and selling products approved for sale, if any. In addition, other unanticipated costs may arise. Because the outcome of our current and anticipated clinical trials is highly uncertain, we cannot reasonably estimate the actual amounts necessary to successfully complete the development and commercialization of our product candidates.

Our future capital requirements depend on many factors, including:

Based on our current operating plan, and absent any future financings or strategic partnerships, we believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents will be sufficient to fund our projected operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements at least through the second quarter of 2021. However, our operating plan may change as a result of many factors currently unknown to us, and we may need additional funds sooner than planned. In addition, we may seek additional capital due to favorable market conditions or strategic considerations even if we believe we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans. Additional funds may not be available when we need them on terms that are acceptable to us, or at all. If adequate funds are not available to us on a timely basis, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate preclinical studies, clinical trials or other development activities for AKB-9778, ARP-1536 or any other product candidates that we develop or acquire, or delay, limit, reduce or terminate our establishment of sales and marketing capabilities or other activities that may be necessary to commercialize our product candidates.

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Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our existing stockholders, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to product candidates on unfavorable terms to us.

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenues, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings and license, development and commercialization agreements with collaborators. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, your ownership interest will be diluted, and the terms may include liquidation or other preferences and anti-dilution protections that adversely affect your rights as a stockholder. Debt financing, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take certain actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends. If we raise additional funds through strategic collaborations with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our product candidates, future revenue streams, research programs or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that are not favorable to us. For example, in June 2018, we entered into a license agreement with a wholly-owned subsidiary of Gossamer Bio, Inc. (including its affiliates, “Gossamer”) for the development and commercialization of AKB-4924. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financing when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or commercialization efforts for AKB-9778, ARP-1536 or any other product candidates that we develop or acquire, or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

Our limited operating history may make it difficult for you to evaluate the success of our business to date and to assess our future viability.

We commenced active operations in 2011, and our operations to date have been limited to organizing and staffing our company, business planning, raising capital, identifying potential product candidates, undertaking preclinical studies and conducting clinical trials. We currently have two product candidates that we are developing internally, one of which is in preclinical development. Biopharmaceutical product development is a highly speculative undertaking and involves a substantial degree of risk. Only a small fraction of biopharmaceutical development programs ultimately results in commercial products or even product candidates and a number of events could delay our development efforts and negatively impact our ability to obtain regulatory approval for, and to manufacture, market and sell, a product. We have not yet demonstrated our ability to successfully complete later stage clinical trials, obtain regulatory approvals, manufacture a commercial scale product, or arrange for a third party to do so on our behalf, or conduct sales and marketing activities necessary for successful product commercialization. Consequently, any predictions you make about our future success or viability may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a longer operating history.

In addition, as a young business, we may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other known and unknown factors. We will need to expand our capabilities to support commercial activities. We may not be successful in adding such capabilities.

Risks Related to Our Business and the Clinical Development, Regulatory Review and Approval of Product Candidates

We depend heavily on the success of our lead product candidate, AKB-9778. Even if we obtain favorable clinical results, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for, or successfully commercialize, AKB-9778.

We rely on our lead product candidate, AKB-9778, and business depends almost entirely on the successful clinical development, regulatory approval and commercialization of that product candidate, which may never occur. In March 2019, we announced top line results of the Phase-2b clinical trial for AKB-9778 in the treatment of non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy. While we believed AKB-9778 had the potential to slow down or possibly reverse retinal vascular changes caused by diabetes, the subcutaneous administration of AKB-9778 twice daily did not meet the study’s primary endpoint of the percentage of patients with an improvement of two or more steps in diabetic retinopathy severity score, or DRSS, in the study eye, compared to placebo.  We plan to initiate a Phase 1b clinical trial of AKB-9778 for a topical formulation to treat primary open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension. We currently have no products for sale, generate no revenues from sales of any drugs, and may never be able to develop marketable products. AKB-9778 will require substantial additional clinical development, testing, manufacturing process development, and regulatory approval before we are permitted to commence its commercialization. We are currently evaluating development options for ARP-1536, which is our other product candidate that we are developing internally. None of our product candidates has advanced into a pivotal trial, and it may be years before such trial is initiated, if ever. The clinical trials of our product candidates are, and the manufacturing and marketing of our product candidates will be, subject to extensive and rigorous review and regulation by numerous government authorities in the United States and in other countries where we intend to test and, if approved, market any product candidates. Before obtaining regulatory approval for the commercial sale of any product candidate, we must demonstrate through extensive preclinical testing and clinical trials that any drug candidate is safe and effective and any biological product candidate is safe, pure, and potent for use in each target indication. This process can take many years. Of the large number of drugs in development in the United States, only a small percentage successfully complete the FDA regulatory approval process and are commercialized. Accordingly, even if we are able to obtain the requisite capital to continue to fund our development and clinical programs, we may be unable to successfully develop or commercialize AKB-9778.

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We are not permitted to market AKB-9778 in the United States until we receive approval of an NDA from the FDA, or in any foreign countries until we receive the requisite approval from such countries. As a condition to submitting an NDA to the FDA for AKB-9778, we must complete our ongoing clinical trials, Phase 2 and 3 trials, and any additional nonclinical studies or clinical trials required by the FDA. To date, we have not completed any clinical trials of AKB-9778 for primary open angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. AKB-9778 may not be successful in clinical trials or receive regulatory approval. Further, AKB-9778 may not receive regulatory approval even if it is successful in clinical trials. Obtaining approval of an NDA is a complex, lengthy, expensive and uncertain process that typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, the policies or regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval, may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. Our development activities could be harmed or delayed by a partial shutdown of the U.S. government, including the FDA. We have not obtained regulatory approval for any product candidate and it is possible that AKB-9778 will never obtain regulatory approval. The FDA may delay, limit or deny approval of AKB-9778 for many reasons, including, among others:

In addition, similar reasons may cause the EMA or other regulatory authorities to delay, limit or deny approval of AKB-9778 outside the United States.

Any of these factors, many of which are beyond our control, could jeopardize our ability to obtain regulatory approval for and successfully market AKB-9778. Because our business is substantially dependent upon AKB-9778, any such setback in our pursuit of regulatory approval would have a material adverse effect on our business and prospects.

Alternatively, even if we obtain regulatory approval, that approval may be for indications or patient populations that are not as broad as we intend or desire or may require labeling that includes significant use or distribution restrictions or safety warnings. We may also be required to perform additional, unanticipated clinical trials to obtain approval or be subject to additional post marketing testing requirements to maintain regulatory approval. In addition, regulatory authorities may withdraw their approval of a product or the FDA may require a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy, or REMS, for a product, which could impose restrictions on its distribution. Any of the foregoing scenarios could materially harm the commercial prospects for our product candidates.

We have not obtained agreement with the FDA, EMA or other regulatory authorities on the design of our development programs.

We have not obtained agreement with the FDA on the design of our planned development programs for AKB-9778 or any other product candidate. As we progress this candidate through clinical trials, the FDA may determine that we would be required to conduct additional clinical trials. The FDA could also disagree with our proposed design of our planned development programs and could suggest a larger number of subjects or a longer course of treatment than our current expectations. If the FDA takes such positions, the costs of our AKB-9778 development program could increase materially and the potential market introduction of AKB-9778 could be delayed or we could risk not obtaining FDA approval even if our clinical trials meet their primary endpoints. The FDA also may require that we conduct additional clinical, nonclinical or manufacturing validation studies and submit that data before it will consider an NDA application.

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We have not yet sought guidance for the regulatory path for the topical formulation of AKB-9778 for primary open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension with the FDA, EMA or other regulatory authorities. We cannot predict what additional requirements may be imposed by these regulatory authorities or how such requirements might delay or increase costs for our planned development programs. Because our business is almost entirely dependent upon the successful development, regulatory approval, and commercialization of AKB-9778, any such delay or increase in costs would have an adverse effect on our business.

We may find it difficult to enroll patients in our clinical trials, which could delay or prevent clinical trials of our product candidates.

Identifying and qualifying patients to participate in clinical trials of our product candidates is critical to our success. The timing of our clinical trials depends on the speed at which we can recruit patients to participate in testing our product candidates, and there is no guarantee that we can successfully enroll patients in a timely manner for our clinical trials. Our competitors may have ongoing clinical trials for product candidates that could be competitive with our product candidates, and patients who would otherwise be eligible for our clinical trials may instead enroll in clinical trials of our competitors’ product candidates. As a result, the timeline for recruiting patients, conducting trials and obtaining regulatory approval of potential products may be delayed. These delays could result in increased costs, delays in advancing our development of AKB-9778 or termination of the clinical trials altogether.

We may not be able to identify, recruit and enroll a sufficient number of patients, or those with required or desired characteristics to achieve diversity in a trial, to complete our clinical trials in a timely manner. Patient enrollment is affected by factors including:

We may not be able to initiate or continue clinical trials if we cannot enroll a sufficient number of eligible patients to participate in the clinical trials required by regulatory agencies. If we have difficulty enrolling a sufficient number of patients to conduct our clinical trials as planned, we may need to delay, limit or terminate ongoing or planned clinical trials, any of which would have an adverse effect on our business.

We may not be able to comply with requirements of foreign jurisdictions in conducting trials outside of the United States. In addition, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval in foreign jurisdictions.

We may conduct our clinical trials for our product candidates in trial sites outside of the United States, including Japan and the European Union, and seek regulatory approval for our product candidates in major markets in addition to the United States, including the European Union. Our ability to successfully initiate, enroll and complete a clinical trial in any foreign country, should we attempt to do so, is subject to numerous risks unique to conducting business in international markets, including:

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If we fail to successfully meet requirements for the conduct of clinical trials outside of the United States, we may be delayed in obtaining, or be unable to obtain, regulatory approval for our product candidates in countries outside of the United States.

Regulatory authorities outside the United States will require compliance with numerous and varying regulatory requirements. The approval procedures vary among jurisdictions and may involve requirements for additional testing, and the time required to obtain approval may differ from that required to obtain FDA approval. In addition, in many countries outside the United States, a product must be approved for reimbursement before it can be approved for sale in that country. In some cases, the price that we intend to charge for our products is also subject to approval. Approval by the FDA does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions, and approval by one foreign regulatory authority does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other foreign countries or by the FDA. However, the failure to obtain approval in one jurisdiction may negatively impact our ability to obtain approval in another jurisdiction. The foreign regulatory approval process may include all of the risks associated with obtaining FDA approval. We may not obtain foreign regulatory approvals on a timely basis, if at all. We may not be able to file for regulatory approvals and may not receive necessary approvals to commercialize our products in any market.

Clinical drug development is a lengthy and expensive process with an uncertain outcome, and positive results from  preclinical studies or earlier stage clinical trials are not necessarily predictive of the results of our future clinical trials of AKB-9778. If we cannot replicate the positive results from preclinical studies or earlier stage clinical trials in subsequent clinical trials, we may be unable to successfully develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize our product candidates.

Clinical testing is expensive and can take many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain. Failure can occur at any time during the clinical trial process. Success in preclinical studies may not be predictive of similar results in humans during clinical trials, and successful results from early or small clinical trials may not be replicated in later and larger clinical trials. For example, we observed encouraging preclinical and clinical results for AKB-9778 in non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy, but this product candidate did not meet the study endpoints in our TIME-2b clinical trial.  There can be no assurance that the results of our planned and future clinical trials will produce positive results. In addition, later stage clinical trials are expected to enroll a larger number of subjects and will treat subjects for longer periods than earlier stage trials, which will result in a greater likelihood that adverse events may be observed. Many companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have suffered significant setbacks in late-stage clinical trials after achieving positive results in early stage development, and we may face similar setbacks. If the results of our ongoing or future clinical trials for AKB-9778 are inconclusive with respect to efficacy, if we do not meet our clinical endpoints with statistical significance, or if there are safety concerns or adverse events, we may be prevented from or delayed in obtaining marketing approval for AKB-9778.

We may experience delays in the planned clinical development program for AKB-9778, and we do not know whether planned clinical trials will begin on time, need to be redesigned, enroll patients on time or be completed on schedule, if at all.

Clinical trials can be delayed or aborted for a variety of reasons, including delay or failure to:

We could encounter delays if a clinical trial is suspended or terminated by us, by the relevant IRBs at the sites at which such trials are being conducted, by the Data Safety Monitoring Board, or DSMB, for such trial or by the FDA or other regulatory authorities. Such authorities may impose such a suspension or termination due to a number of factors, including failure to conduct the clinical trial in accordance with regulatory requirements or our clinical protocols, inspection of the clinical trial operations or trial site by the FDA or other regulatory authorities resulting in the imposition of a clinical hold, unforeseen safety issues or adverse side effects, changes in laws or regulations, or lack of adequate funding to continue the clinical trial. Any delays in completing our clinical trials will increase our costs, slow down our product candidate development and approval process and jeopardize our ability to commence product sales and generate revenues. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, financial condition and prospects significantly.

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Even if we receive regulatory approval for our product candidates, such products will be subject to ongoing regulatory review, which may result in significant additional expense. Additionally, our product candidates, if approved, could be subject to labeling and other restrictions, and we may be subject to penalties if we fail to comply with regulatory requirements or experience unanticipated problems with our products.

Any regulatory approvals that we receive for our product candidates may be subject to limitations on the approved indicated uses for which the product may be marketed or to conditions of approval, or contain requirements for potentially costly post-marketing testing, including Phase 4 clinical trials, and surveillance to monitor the safety and efficacy of the products. In addition, if the FDA approves any of our product candidates, the manufacturing processes, labeling, packaging, distribution, adverse event reporting, storage, advertising, promotion and recordkeeping for the product will be subject to extensive and ongoing regulatory requirements. These requirements include submissions of safety and other post-marketing information and reports, establishment registration, as well as continued compliance with current Good Manufacturing Practice, or cGMP, requirements and GCP requirements for any clinical trials that we conduct post-approval.

Post-approval discovery of previously unknown problems with an approved product, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency or relating to manufacturing operations or processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in, among other things:

The FDA’s policies may change and additional government regulations may be enacted. We cannot predict the likelihood, nature or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative action, either in the United States or abroad. If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, we may lose any marketing approval that may have been obtained and we may not achieve or sustain profitability, which would adversely affect our business.

Risks Related to Our Reliance on Third Parties

We rely on third parties to conduct preclinical studies and clinical trials for our product candidates, and if they do not properly and successfully perform their obligations to us, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approvals for our product candidates.

We rely on third party CROs and other third parties to assist in managing, monitoring and otherwise carrying out our clinical trials. We expect to continue to rely on third parties, such as CROs, clinical data management organizations, medical institutions and clinical investigators to conduct our clinical trials in the future, including our planned Phase 1b clinical trial for AKB-9778. We compete with many other companies for the resources of these third parties. The third parties on whom we rely may terminate their engagements with us at any time, and having to enter into alternative arrangements would delay development and commercialization of our product candidates.

Our reliance on these third parties for research and development activities will reduce our control over these activities but will not relieve us of our responsibilities. For example, the FDA and foreign regulatory authorities require compliance with regulations and standards, including GCP requirements, for designing, conducting, monitoring, recording, analyzing and reporting the results of clinical trials to ensure that the data and results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of trial participants are protected. Although we rely on third parties to conduct our clinical trials, we are responsible for ensuring that each of these clinical trials is conducted in accordance with its general investigational plan and protocol under legal and regulatory requirements. Regulatory authorities enforce these GCP requirements through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, principal investigators and trial sites. If we or any of our investigators or CROs fail to comply with applicable GCP requirements, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA, EMA or other regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. We cannot assure you that upon inspection by a given regulatory authority, such regulatory authority will determine that any of our clinical trials comply with GCP requirements. In addition, our clinical trials must be conducted with product produced under applicable cGMP regulations. Failure to comply with these regulations may require us to repeat clinical trials, which would delay the regulatory approval process.

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If these third parties do not successfully carry out their duties under their agreements, if the quality or accuracy of the data they obtain is compromised due to their failure to adhere to clinical trial protocols or to regulatory requirements, or if they otherwise fail to comply with clinical trial protocols or meet expected deadlines, the clinical trials of our product candidates may not meet regulatory requirements. If clinical trials do not meet regulatory requirements or if these third parties need to be replaced, preclinical development activities or clinical trials may be extended, delayed, suspended or terminated. If any of these events occur, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval of our product candidates on a timely basis or at all.

We also expect to rely on other third parties to store and distribute drug supplies for our clinical trials. Any performance failure on the part of our distributors could delay clinical development or marketing approval of our product candidates or commercialization of our products, producing additional losses and depriving us of potential product revenue.

We intend to rely on third parties to conduct some or all aspects of our product manufacturing, and these third parties may not perform satisfactorily.

We do not have any manufacturing facilities and do not expect to independently conduct our product candidate manufacturing for research and preclinical and clinical testing. We currently rely, and expect to rely, on third parties to manufacture and supply drug products for our AKB-9778 clinical trials, and we expect to continue to rely on third parties for the manufacture of clinical and, if necessary, commercial quantities of our product candidates. This reliance on third parties increases the risk that we will not have sufficient quantities of our product candidates or such quantities at an acceptable cost or quality, which could delay, prevent or impair our development or commercialization efforts.

Any of these third parties may terminate their engagement with us at any time. We currently have arrangements in place for the manufacturing of drug substance and drug product for our planned Phase 3 development program. Although we believe that there are several potential alternative manufacturers who could manufacture our product candidates, we may incur significant delays and added costs in identifying, qualifying and contracting with any such replacement, as well as producing the drug product. The FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may find deficiencies with the manufacturing processes or facilities of third-party manufacturers with which we contract for clinical and commercial supplies. Manufacturers of drug products and their facilities are subject to continual review and periodic inspections by the FDA and other regulatory authorities for compliance with cGMP requirements relating to quality control, quality assurance and corresponding maintenance of records and documents. In addition, we have to enter into technical transfer agreements and share our know-how with the third-party manufacturers, which can be time-consuming and may result in delays. These delays could result in a suspension of our clinical trials or, if AKB-9778 is approved and marketed, a failure to satisfy patient demand.

Reliance on third party manufacturers entails risks to which we would not be subject if we manufactured the product candidates ourselves, including:

Any of these events could lead to clinical study delays or failure to obtain regulatory approval or affect our ability to successfully commercialize future products. Some of these events could be the basis for FDA action, including injunction, recall, seizure or total or partial suspension of production.

The facilities used by our contract manufacturers to manufacture our product candidates must be evaluated by the FDA pursuant to inspections that will be conducted after we submit our NDA to the FDA. We do not control the manufacturing process of, and are completely dependent on, our contract manufacturers for compliance with cGMP requirements for manufacture of both drug substance and finished drug product. If our contract manufacturers cannot successfully manufacture material that conforms to our specifications and the strict regulatory requirements of the FDA, we will not be able to secure and/or maintain regulatory approval for our product candidates. In addition, we have no control over the ability of our contract manufacturers to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance and qualified personnel. If the FDA, EMA or other regulatory authorities find deficiencies with or do not approve these facilities for the manufacture of our product candidates, or if they find deficiencies or withdraw any such approval in the future, we may need to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which would significantly impact our ability to develop, obtain regulatory approval for or market our product candidates, if approved.

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Moreover, our failure, or the failure of our third party manufacturers, to comply with applicable regulations could result in sanctions being imposed on us, including clinical holds, fines, injunctions, civil penalties, delays, suspension or withdrawal of approvals, license revocation, seizures or recalls of product candidates or products, operating restrictions and criminal prosecutions, any of which could significantly and adversely affect supplies of our drug products or product candidates.

In addition, our product candidates and any products that we may develop may compete with other product candidates and products for access to manufacturing facilities. Certain of these manufacturing facilities may be contractually prohibited from manufacturing our product due to non-compete agreements with our competitors. There are a limited number of manufacturers that operate under cGMP regulations and that might be capable of manufacturing for us.

Our current and anticipated future dependence upon others for the manufacture of our product candidates or products may adversely affect our future profit margins and our ability to commercialize any products that receive marketing approval on a timely and competitive basis.

If we are unable to manufacture our product candidates in sufficient quantities, at sufficient yields, we may experience delays in product development, clinical trials, regulatory approval and commercial distribution.

Completion of our clinical trials and commercialization of our product candidates require access to, or development of, facilities to manufacture our product candidates at sufficient yields and at commercial scale. We have limited experience manufacturing, or managing third parties in manufacturing, any of our product candidates in the volumes that will be necessary to support large-scale clinical trials or commercial sales. Efforts to establish these capabilities may not meet initial expectations as to scheduling, scale-up, reproducibility, yield, purity, cost, potency or quality.

Our reliance on contract manufacturers may adversely affect our operations or result in unforeseen delays or other problems beyond our control. Because of contractual restraints and the limited number of third-party manufacturers with the expertise and facilities to manufacture our bulk drug product on a commercial scale, replacement of a manufacturer may be expensive and time-consuming and may cause interruptions in the production of our drug product. A third-party manufacturer may also encounter difficulties in production. These problems may include:

Any delay or interruption in our supply of product candidates could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows.

We may not be successful in establishing and maintaining strategic collaborations, which could adversely affect our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates, negatively impacting our operating results.

If approved, we plan to commercialize AKB-9778 ourselves in the United States and intend to seek one or more strategic collaborators to commercialize AKB-9778 in additional markets. With respect to ARP-1536, we are evaluating its development options. We face competition in seeking appropriate collaborators for our product candidates, and the negotiation process is time-consuming and complex. In order for us to successfully collaborate with a third party on our product candidates, potential collaborators must view these product candidates as economically valuable. Even if we are successful in our efforts to establish strategic collaborations, the terms that we agree upon may not be favorable to us, and we may not be able to maintain such strategic collaborations if, for example, development or approval of a product is delayed or sales of an approved product are disappointing. Any delay in entering into strategic collaboration agreements related to our product candidates could delay the development and commercialization of our product candidates and reduce their competitiveness even if they reach the market.

In addition, our strategic collaborators may terminate any agreements they enter into with us, and we may not be able to adequately protect our rights under these agreements. Furthermore, our strategic collaborators will likely negotiate for certain rights to control decisions regarding the development and commercialization of our product candidates, if approved, and may not conduct those activities in the same manner as we do.

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On June 24, 2018, we entered into a license agreement with Gossamer pursuant to which we granted to Gossamer an exclusive, sublicensable license to develop and commercialize AKB-4924 and other structurally related products worldwide. We received an upfront payment of $20.0 million in connection with this license and are eligible to receive additional development and milestone payments contingent upon the achievement of specified milestones. We are also eligible to receive tiered royalties on sales of licensed products and additional payments upon the occurrence of specified events involving the licensed products. However, there can be no assurance that we will satisfy the conditions to receive any such payments from Gossamer in a timely manner or at all. While Gossamer is obligated to use its commercially reasonable efforts to develop and commercialize the licensed products, there can be no assurance that such products would be successfully developed and commercialized. In addition, the license agreement contains an exclusivity provision pursuant to which we are prohibited from developing, manufacturing or commercializing certain HIF stabilizing compounds as described in the agreement. While the license agreement expires on a licensed product-by-licensed product and country-by-country basis on the later of fifteen years from the date or first commercial sale or when there is no longer a valid patent claim covering such licensed product in such country, either party may terminate the license agreement for an uncured material breach by the other party or upon the bankruptcy or insolvency of the other party. In addition, Gossamer may terminate the license agreement in the event it determines that there is a potential safety or efficacy issue with the licensed products. Therefore, there can be no assurance that the license agreement will continue for its full duration or that we will realize the intended benefits of the license agreement.

If we fail to establish and maintain strategic collaborations related to our product candidates for the indications and in the geographies in which we do not intend develop and commercialize ourselves, we will bear all of the risk and costs related to the development and commercialization of any such product candidate, and we may need to seek additional financing, hire additional employees and otherwise develop expertise. This could negatively affect the development of any product candidate for which we do not locate a suitable strategic partner.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

If our efforts to protect our proprietary technologies are not adequate, we may not be able to compete effectively in our market.

We rely upon a combination of patents, trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect the intellectual property related to our technologies. We will only be able to protect our product candidates, proprietary technologies and their uses from unauthorized use by third parties to the extent that valid and enforceable patents or trade secrets cover them. Any disclosure to or misappropriation by third parties of our confidential proprietary information could enable competitors to quickly duplicate or surpass our technological achievements, thus eroding our competitive position in our market.

The patenting process is expensive and time-consuming, and we may not be able to file and prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. In addition, we may not pursue or obtain patent protection in all relevant markets. It is also possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development output before it is too late to obtain patent protection. Our pending and future patent applications may not result in issued patents that protect our technology or products, in whole or in part. In addition, our existing patents and any future patents we obtain may not be sufficiently broad to prevent others from using our technology or from developing competing products and technologies.

Composition-of-matter patents on the active pharmaceutical ingredient are generally considered to be the strongest form of intellectual property protection for pharmaceutical products, as such patents provide protection without regard to any method of use. Method-of-use patents protect the use of a product for the specified method.

This type of patent does not prevent a competitor from making and marketing a product that is identical to our products for an indication that is outside the scope of the patented method. Likewise, a competitor may make and market a product similar to our products but that are not covered by the scope of our patents.  Moreover, even if competitors do not actively promote their product for our targeted indications, physicians may prescribe these products “off-label.” Although off-label prescriptions may infringe or contribute to the infringement of method-of-use patents, the practice is common and such infringement is difficult to prevent or prosecute. In addition, our patents will eventually expire, and the active pharmaceutical ingredients in our current product candidates will become commercially available in generic drug products.  Thus, no patent protection may be available with regard to formulation or method of use.

The strength of patents in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical field involves complex legal and scientific questions and can be uncertain. The patent applications that we own or license may fail to result in issued patents in the United States or in other foreign countries. Even if the patents do successfully issue, third parties may challenge the validity, enforceability, inventorship, or scope thereof, which may result in such patents being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable. Furthermore, even if they are unchallenged, our patents and patent applications may not adequately protect our intellectual property or prevent others from designing around our claims. If the breadth or strength of protection provided by the patent applications we hold with respect to our product candidates is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to develop, and threaten our ability to commercialize, our product candidates. Moreover, the inventors of our patents or patent applications or our scientific consultants may become involved with competitors, develop products or processes which design around our patents, or become hostile to us or the

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patents or patent applications on which they are named as inventors.  Likewise, our collaborators may become hostile to us or develop products or processes that are adjacent to or compete with us, including products and processes outside the scope of our patents. For example, a hostile collaborator may use technology similar to ours to pursue treatment of an indication that we plan to pursue, and may obtain approval for a product before we do.  A hostile collaborator may file patent applications based on information learned from us.  Such patent applications may become prior art that will be detrimental to future patent applications by us on similar technology.

Further, if we encounter delays in our clinical trials, the period of time during which we could market our product candidates under patent protection would be reduced. Since patent applications in the United States and most other countries are confidential for a period of time after filing, we cannot be certain that we were the first to file any patent application related to our product candidates. Furthermore, for applications in which all claims are entitled to a priority date before March 16, 2013, an interference proceeding can be provoked by a third-party or instituted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, or the USPTO, to determine who was the first to invent any of the subject matter covered by the patent claims of our applications. For applications containing a claim not entitled to priority before March 16, 2013, there is greater level of uncertainty in the patent law with the passage of the America Invents Act (2011), which brings into effect significant changes to the U.S. patent laws and which introduces new procedures for challenging pending patent applications and issued patents. A primary change under this reform is creating a “first to file” system in the United States. We, or our collaborators, might not have been the first to file patent applications on certain inventions.  Likewise, our collaborators may file patent applications on certain inventions without our knowledge, prior to our filing patent applications on those inventions.  This will require us to be cognizant of the time from invention to filing of a patent application.

In addition to the protection afforded by patents, we seek to rely on trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect proprietary know-how that is not patentable, processes for which patents are difficult to enforce and any other elements of our drug discovery and development processes that involve proprietary know-how, information or technology that is not covered by patents. Although we require all of our employees to assign their inventions to us, and require all of our employees, consultants, advisors and any third parties who have access to our proprietary know-how, information or technology to enter into confidentiality agreements, we cannot be certain that our trade secrets and other confidential proprietary information will not be disclosed, willfully or unintentionally, or that competitors will not otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or independently develop substantially equivalent information and techniques. Trade secrets are difficult to protect, and we have limited control over the protection of trade secrets used by our licensors, collaborators, and suppliers.  Furthermore, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect proprietary rights to the same extent or in the same manner as the laws of the United States. As a result, we may encounter significant problems in protecting and defending our intellectual property both in the United States and abroad. If we are unable to prevent unauthorized material disclosure of our intellectual property to third parties, we will not be able to establish or maintain a competitive advantage in our market, which could materially adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition.

We currently have a non-exclusive license to one U.S. patent, which we have licensed to Gossamer as part of the June 24, 2018 license agreement. We rely on the licensor to maintain this patent and otherwise protect the intellectual property covered by this non-exclusive license. We have limited control over these activities or over any other intellectual property that may be related to our in-licensed intellectual property. For example, we cannot be certain that activities by the licensor have been or will be conducted in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. We may have no control or input over whether, and in what manner, our licensor may enforce or defend the patent against a third-party. The licensor may enforce or defend the patent less vigorously than if we had enforced or defended the patent ourselves. Further, the licensor may not necessarily seek enforcement in scenarios in which we would feel that enforcement was in our best interests. For example, the licensor may not enforce the patent against a competitor of ours who is not a direct competitor of the licensor. If our in-licensed intellectual property is found to be invalid or unenforceable, then the licensor may not be able to enforce the patent against a competitor of ours. Our non-exclusive license does not prevent a third party from seeking and obtaining a non-exclusive license to the same patent that we license. If we fail to meet our obligations under the non-exclusive license agreement, then the licensor may terminate the license agreement. If the license agreement is terminated, the former licensor may seek to enforce the intellectual property against us. We may choose to terminate the license agreement, and doing so would allow a third party to seek and obtain an exclusive license to the patent. If a third party obtains an exclusive license to intellectual property formerly licensed to us, then the third party may seek to enforce the intellectual property against us. The occurrence of any of the foregoing may negatively impair our collaboration with Gossamer and prevent us from realizing the intended benefits of this collaboration.

Our patents covering one or more of our products or product candidates could be found invalid or unenforceable if challenged.

Any of our intellectual property rights could be challenged or invalidated despite measures we take to obtain patent and other intellectual property protection with respect to our product candidates and proprietary technology. For example, if we were to initiate legal proceedings against a third party to enforce a patent covering one of our product candidates, the defendant could counterclaim that our patent is invalid and/or unenforceable. In patent litigation in the U.S. and in some other jurisdictions, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity and/or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, for example, lack of novelty, obviousness or non-enablement. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld material information from the USPTO or the applicable foreign counterpart, or made a misleading statement, during prosecution. A litigant or the USPTO itself could challenge our patents on this basis even if we believe that we have conducted our patent prosecution in accordance with the duty of candor and in good faith. The outcome following such a challenge is unpredictable.

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With respect to challenges to the validity of our patents, for example, there might be invalidating prior art, of which we and the patent examiner were unaware during prosecution. If a defendant were to prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity and/or unenforceability, we would lose at least part, and perhaps all, of the patent protection on a product candidate. Even if a defendant does not prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity and/or unenforceability, our patent claims may be construed in a manner that would limit our ability to enforce such claims against the defendant and others. The cost of defending such a challenge, particularly in a foreign jurisdiction, and any resulting loss of patent protection could have a material adverse impact on one or more of our product candidates and our business. Enforcing our intellectual property rights against third parties may also cause such third parties to file other counterclaims against us, which could be costly to defend, particularly in a foreign jurisdiction, and could require us to pay substantial damages, cease the sale of certain products or enter into a license agreement and pay royalties (which may not be possible on commercially reasonable terms or at all). Any efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights are also likely to be costly and may divert the efforts of our scientific and management personnel, even if we are successful in stopping infringement of our patents.

There is also the risk that, even if the validity of these patents is upheld, the court will refuse to stop the third party on the ground that such third party’s activities do not infringe our patents. In addition, the U.S. Supreme Court has recently changed some legal principles that affect patent applications, granted patents and assessment of the eligibility or validity of these patents. As a consequence, issued patents may be found to contain invalid claims according to the newly revised eligibility and validity standards. Some of our patents may be subject to challenge and subsequent invalidation or significant narrowing of claim scope in proceedings before the USPTO, or during litigation, under the revised criteria which could also make it more difficult to obtain patents.

We may not be able to detect infringement against our patents, as the case may be, which may be especially difficult for formulation patents. Even if we detect infringement by a third party of our patents, we may choose not to pursue litigation against or settlement with the third party. If we later sue such third party for patent infringement, the third party may have certain legal defenses available to it, which otherwise would not be available except for the delay between when the infringement was first detected and when the suit was brought. Such legal defenses may make it impossible for us to enforce our patents against such third party.

If another party questions the patentability of any of our claims in our U.S. patents, the third party can request that the USPTO review the patent claims such as in an inter partes review, ex parte re-exam or post-grant review proceedings. These proceedings are expensive and may result in a loss of scope of some claims or a loss of the entire patent. In addition to potential USPTO review proceedings, we may become a party to patent opposition proceedings in the European Patent Office, or EPO, or similar proceedings in other foreign patent offices, where our foreign patents are challenged. The costs of these opposition or similar proceedings could be substantial, and may result in a loss of scope of some claims or a loss of the entire patent. An unfavorable result at the USPTO, EPO or other patent office may result in the loss of our right to exclude others from practicing one or more of our inventions in the relevant country or jurisdiction, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Our reliance on third parties requires us to share our trade secrets, which increases the possibility that a competitor will discover them or that our trade secrets will be misappropriated or disclosed.

Because we rely on third parties to research and develop and to manufacture our product candidates, we must, at times, share trade secrets with them. We seek to protect our proprietary technology in part by entering into confidentiality agreements and, if applicable, material transfer agreements, consulting agreements or other similar agreements with our advisors, employees, third-party contractors and consultants prior to beginning research or disclosing proprietary information. These agreements typically limit the rights of the third parties to use or disclose our confidential information, including our trade secrets. Despite the contractual provisions employed when working with third parties, the need to share trade secrets and other confidential information increases the risk that such trade secrets become known by our competitors, are inadvertently incorporated into the technology of others, or are disclosed or used in violation of these agreements. Given that our proprietary position is based, in part, on our know-how and trade secrets, a competitor’s discovery of our trade secrets or other unauthorized use or disclosure would impair our competitive position and may have a material adverse effect on our business. Moreover, enforcing a claim that a third party illegally obtained and is using any of our trade secrets is expensive and time consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, courts outside the United States are sometimes less willing to protect trade secrets. If we choose to go to court to stop a third party from using any of our trade secrets, we may incur substantial costs. These lawsuits may consume our time and other resources even if we are successful.  These lawsuits also may impact our ability to pursue agreements with third parties in the future.

In addition, these agreements typically restrict the ability of our advisors, employees, third-party contractors and consultants to publish data potentially relating to our trade secrets, although our agreements may contain certain limited publication rights. For example, any academic institution that we may collaborate with in the future will usually expect to be granted rights to publish data arising out of such collaboration, provided that we are notified in advance and given the opportunity to delay publication for a limited time period in order for us to secure patent protection of intellectual property rights arising from the collaboration, in addition to the opportunity to remove confidential or trade secret information from any such publication. In the future we may also conduct joint research and development programs that may require us to share trade secrets under the terms of our research and development or similar agreements.  A collaborator at such academic institution may use the information learned from the collaboration to compete with us, either in an academic or commercial setting.  The collaborator may use the results obtained through the academic collaboration for the

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benefit of another commercial entity.  The collaborator may use technology for the benefit of a third party even if we were entitled to a license or the right to negotiate for a license to the technology from the academic institution. Despite our efforts to protect our trade secrets, our competitors may discover our trade secrets, either through breach of our agreements with third parties, independent development or publication of information by any of our third-party collaborators. A competitor’s discovery of our trade secrets would impair our competitive position and have an adverse impact on our business.

Moreover, our reliance on third parties may be exploited by a third party with knowledge of our company, including knowledge of company strategies, intellectual property, research programs, trade secrets, and scientific discovery including, for example, drug targets, pharmaceutically active ingredients, dosing regimens and mechanisms of action.  A third party may start a competing company or may join a competing company.  If a third party with whom we have an agreement does become a competitor, this may lead to questions of intellectual property ownership, ownership of physical assets, inventorship and breach of contracts in place with the third party.  If we seek to resolve this issue by a law suit, then we expect counter claims that may jeopardize the validity and enforceability of our patents.  The third parties with whom we collaborate also may have business or legal conflicts of interest.  These conflicts of interest can lead to litigation or impact the ability of the third party to fulfill their obligations to us.

Third-party claims of intellectual property infringement may be costly and time consuming and may delay or harm our drug discovery and development efforts.

Our commercial success depends in part on our avoiding infringement of the patents and proprietary rights of third parties. The pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries are characterized by extensive litigation over patent and other intellectual property rights. We may become a party to, or threatened with, future adversarial litigation or other proceedings regarding intellectual property rights with respect to our drug candidates. As the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries expand and more patents are issued, the risk increases that our drug candidates may give rise to claims of infringement of the patent rights of others.

While our product candidates are in preclinical studies and clinical trials, we believe that the use of our product candidates in these preclinical studies and clinical trials in the United States falls within the scope of the exemptions provided by 35 U.S.C. Section 271(e), which provides that it shall not be an act of infringement to make, use, offer to sell, or sell within the United States or import into the United States a patented invention solely for uses reasonably related to the development and submission of information to the FDA. As our product candidates progress toward commercialization, the possibility of a patent infringement claim against us increases. We attempt to ensure that our product candidates and the methods we employ to manufacture them, as well as the methods for their use we intend to promote, do not infringe other parties’ patents and other proprietary rights. There can be no assurance they do not, however, and competitors or other parties may assert that we infringe their proprietary rights in any event.

Third parties may hold or obtain patents or other intellectual property rights and allege in the future that the use of our product candidates infringes these patents or intellectual property rights, or that we are employing their proprietary technology without authorization. Under U.S. law, a party may be able to patent a discovery of a new way to use a previously known compound, even if such compound itself is patented, provided the newly discovered use is novel and nonobvious. Such a method-of-use patent, however, if valid, only protects the use of a claimed compound for the specified methods claimed in the patent. This type of patent does not prevent persons from using the compound for any previously known use of the compound. Further, this type of patent does not prevent persons from making and marketing the compound for an indication that is outside the scope of the patented method.

There may be patents of third parties of which we are currently unaware with claims to materials, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the use or manufacture of our drug candidates. Also, because patent applications can take many years to issue, there may be currently pending patent applications which may later result in issued patents that our product candidates may infringe. Notwithstanding the above, third parties may in the future claim that our product candidates and other technologies infringe upon these patents and may file suit against us.

Parties making claims against us may seek and obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize AKB-9778 or other product candidates. If any third-party patents were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover the manufacturing process of any of our product candidates, any molecules formed during the manufacturing process or any final product itself, then the holders of any such patents may be able to block our ability to commercialize such product candidate unless we obtained a license under the applicable patents, or until such patents expire or they are finally determined to be held invalid or unenforceable. Similarly, if any third-party patent were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover aspects of our formulations, processes for manufacture or our intended methods of use, then the holders of any such patent may be able to block or impair our ability to develop and commercialize the applicable product candidate unless we obtained a license or until such patent expires or is finally determined to be held invalid or unenforceable. We may also elect to enter into a license in order to settle litigation or in order to resolve disputes prior to litigation. Furthermore, even in the absence of litigation, we may need to acquire or obtain licenses from third parties to advance our research or allow commercialization of our product candidates, and there can be no assurance that we will be able to do so on commercially reasonable terms or at all.

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Additionally, we may in the future from time to time collaborate with academic institutions to accelerate our preclinical research or development under written agreements with these institutions. In certain cases, these institutions may provide us with an option to negotiate a license to any of the institution’s rights in technology resulting from the collaboration. Regardless of such option, we may be unable to negotiate a license within the specified timeframe or under terms that are acceptable to us. If we are unable to do so, the institution may offer the intellectual property rights to others, potentially blocking our ability to pursue our program. The institution also may only offer a nonexclusive license, providing an opportunity for competitors to license intellectual property important to us.  If we are unable to successfully obtain rights to required third-party intellectual property or to maintain the existing intellectual property rights we have, we may have to abandon development of such program and our business and financial condition could suffer.  The academic institutions, or our collaborators at those institutions, also may violate the terms of our agreements with them.  For example, a collaborator could use proprietary knowledge based on the collaboration to compete with us.  These violations may result in litigation, which can be costly and may impact our ability to use resources for product development or other necessary functions.

The licensing and acquisition of third-party intellectual property rights is a competitive practice, and companies that may be more established, or have greater resources than we do, may also be pursuing strategies to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights that we may consider necessary or attractive in order to commercialize our product candidates. More established companies may have a competitive advantage over us due to their larger size and cash resources or greater clinical development and commercialization capabilities. There can be no assurance that we will be able to successfully complete such negotiations and ultimately acquire the rights to the intellectual property surrounding the additional product candidates that we may seek to acquire.

Further, defense of infringement claims, regardless of their merit, would involve substantial litigation expense and would be a substantial diversion of employee resources from our business. In the event of a successful claim of infringement against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees for willful infringement, pay royalties or redesign our products, which may be impossible or require substantial time and monetary expenditure.

We may become involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or other intellectual property, which could be expensive, time consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe or otherwise violate our patents, trademarks, copyrights or other intellectual property. To counter infringement or other violations, we may be required to file claims, which can be expensive and time consuming. Any such claims could provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us, including claims alleging that we infringe their patents or other intellectual property rights. In addition, in a patent infringement proceeding, a court may decide that one or more of the patents we assert is invalid or unenforceable, in whole or in part, construe the patent’s claims narrowly or refuse to prevent the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology. Similarly, if we assert trademark infringement claims, a court may determine that the marks we have asserted are invalid or unenforceable or that the party against whom we have asserted trademark infringement has superior rights to the marks in question. In such a case, we could ultimately be forced to cease use of such marks. In any intellectual property litigation, even if we are successful, any award of monetary damages or other remedy we receive may not be commercially valuable. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation.

Obtaining and maintaining our patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees on any issued patent are due to be paid to the USPTO and foreign patent agencies in several stages over the lifetime of the patent. The USPTO and various foreign governmental patent agencies also require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment (such as annuities) and other similar provisions during the patent application process. While an inadvertent lapse can in many cases be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules, there are situations in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. Non-compliance events that could result in abandonment or lapse of a patent or patent application include, but are not limited to, failure to respond to official actions within prescribed time limits, non-payment of fees and failure to properly legalize and submit formal documents. In such an event, our competitors might be able to enter the market, which would have a material adverse effect on our business.

We may be subject to claims that our employees, consultants or independent contractors have wrongfully used or disclosed confidential information of third parties.

We have received confidential and proprietary information from collaborators, prospective licensees and other third parties. In addition, we employ individuals who were previously employed at other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies. We may be subject to claims that we or our employees, consultants or independent contractors have inadvertently or otherwise used or disclosed confidential information of these third parties or our employees’ former employers. We may also be subject to claims that former employees, collaborators or other third parties have an ownership interest in our patents or other intellectual property. We may be subject to ownership disputes in the future arising, for example, from conflicting obligations of consultants or others who are involved in developing our drug candidates. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights, such as exclusive ownership of, or right to use, valuable intellectual property. Such an outcome could have a material adverse effect on our business. Even if we are successful in defending against these claims, litigation could result in substantial cost and be a distraction to our management and employees.

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We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting and defending patents on product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and our intellectual property rights in some countries outside the United States can be less extensive than those in the United States. In addition, the laws of some countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as laws in the United States. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in all countries outside the United States, or from selling or importing products made using our inventions in and into the United States or other countries. Competitors may use our technologies in countries where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and further, may infringe our patents in territories where we have patent protection, but enforcement is not as strong as in the United States. These products may compete with our products and our patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in certain countries. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents, trade secrets and other intellectual property, particularly those relating to pharmaceutical and biotechnology products, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our proprietary rights generally. Proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign countries could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and our patent applications at risk of not issuing and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

Risks Related to Commercialization

Our future commercial success depends upon attaining significant market acceptance of our product candidates, if approved, among physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community.

Even if we obtain marketing approval for AKB-9778 or any other product candidates that we may develop or acquire in the future, these product candidates may not gain market acceptance among physicians, third-party payors, patients and others in the medical community. In addition, market acceptance of any approved products depends on a number of other factors, including:

For example, the current established treatments for glaucoma are predominantly eye drop drugs such as prostaglandins (e.g., latanoprost), beta blockers (e.g., timolol), carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (e.g., dorozolamide) and alpha agonists (e.g., brimonidine), many of which are generic, and are used as single agent therapies or combinations of a prostaglandin along with another agent.  Recently there have been new agents approved including netarsidil (Rhopress TM, and in combination with latanoprost, Rhoclatan TM) and latanoprostene bunod (Vyzulta TM).

Unless we demonstrate that AKB-9778 has single agent efficacy as effective as or more effective than current single-agent standard of care, or as effective or more effective in combination with a prostaglandin such as latanoprost as other combination products, prescribers may be resistant to prescribing it for glaucoma.

Market acceptance is critical to our ability to generate significant revenue. In addition, any product candidate, if approved and commercialized, may be accepted in only limited capacities or not at all. If any approved products are not accepted by the market at all or to the extent that we expect, we may not be able to generate significant revenue and our business would suffer.

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If we are unable to establish sales, marketing and distribution capabilities or to enter into agreements with third parties to market and sell our product candidates, we may not be successful in commercializing our product candidates if and when they are approved.

We do not have a sales or marketing infrastructure and have no experience in the sale, marketing or distribution of pharmaceutical products. To achieve commercial success for any product for which we obtain marketing approval, we will need to establish a sales and marketing organization or make arrangements with third parties to perform these services.

There are risks involved with establishing our own sales, marketing and distribution capabilities. For example, recruiting and training a sales force are expensive and time consuming and could delay any product launch. If the commercial launch of a product candidate for which we recruit a sales force and establish marketing capabilities is delayed or does not occur for any reason, we would have prematurely or unnecessarily incurred these commercialization expenses. This may be costly, and our investment would be lost if we cannot retain or reposition our sales and marketing personnel.

Factors that may inhibit our efforts to commercialize our products on our own include:

If we are unable to establish our own sales, marketing and distribution capabilities and have to enter into arrangements with third parties to perform these services, our profitability, if any, is likely to be materially diminished in relation to if we were to market, sell and distribute any products that we develop ourselves. In addition, we may not be successful in entering into arrangements with third parties to sell, market and distribute our product candidates or may be unable to do so on terms that are favorable to us. We likely will have little control over such third parties, and any of them may fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell and market our products effectively. If we do not establish sales, marketing and distribution capabilities successfully, either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we will not be successful in commercializing our product candidates.

Coverage and reimbursement may be limited or unavailable in certain market segments for any approved products, which could make it difficult for us to sell our products profitably.

Market acceptance and sales of any approved products will depend significantly on the availability of adequate coverage and reimbursement from third-party payors and may be affected by existing and future healthcare reform measures. Government authorities and third-party payors decide which drugs they will pay for and establish formularies and reimbursement levels. Coverage and reimbursement by a third-party payor may depend upon a number of factors, including the third-party payor’s determination that use of a product is:

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Obtaining coverage and reimbursement approval for a product from a government or other third-party payor is a time consuming and costly process that could require us to provide supporting scientific, clinical and cost-effectiveness data for the use of our products to the payor. Additionally, we may be required to enter into contracts with third-party payors to obtain favorable formulary status. We may not be able to provide data sufficient to gain acceptance with respect to coverage and reimbursement. We cannot be sure that coverage or adequate reimbursement will be available for any of our product candidates. Third-party payors often rely upon Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement rates, but also have their own methods and approval process apart from Medicate determinations. Therefore, coverage and reimbursement for drug products can differ significantly from payor to payor. Even if we obtain coverage for our product candidates, third-party payors may not establish adequate reimbursement amounts, which may reduce the demand for, or the price of, our products. If reimbursement is not available or is available only to limited levels, we may not be able to commercialize certain of our products. In addition, in the United States, third-party payors are increasingly attempting to contain healthcare costs by limiting both coverage and the level of reimbursement of new drugs. As a result, significant uncertainty exists as to whether and how much third-party payors will reimburse patients for their use of newly approved drugs, which in turn will put pressure on the pricing of drugs.

Price controls may be imposed, which may adversely affect our future profitability.

In some countries, particularly member states of the European Union, the pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals is subject to governmental control. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after receipt of marketing approval for a product. In addition, there can be considerable pressure by governments and other stakeholders on prices and reimbursement levels, including as part of cost containment measures. Political, economic and regulatory developments may further complicate pricing negotiations, and pricing negotiations may continue after reimbursement has been obtained. Reference pricing used by various European Union member states and parallel distribution, or arbitrage between low-priced and high-priced member states, can further reduce prices. In some countries, we may be required to conduct a clinical trial or other studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of our product candidates to other available products in order to obtain or maintain reimbursement or pricing approval. Publication of discounts by third-party payors or authorities may lead to further pressure on the prices or reimbursement levels within the country of publication and other countries. If reimbursement of our products is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, our business could be adversely affected.

The impact of recent healthcare reform and other changes in the healthcare industry and in healthcare spending is currently unknown and may adversely affect our business model.

Our revenue prospects could be affected by changes in healthcare spending and policy in the United States and abroad. We operate in a highly regulated industry and new laws, regulations or judicial decisions, or new interpretations of existing laws, regulations or decisions related to healthcare availability, the method of delivery or payment for healthcare products and services could negatively impact our business, operations and financial condition.

In the United States, the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003, also called the MMA, changed the way Medicare covers and pays for pharmaceutical products. The legislation expanded Medicare coverage for drug purchases by the elderly and introduced a new reimbursement methodology based on average sales prices for physician-administered drugs. In addition, this legislation provided authority for limiting the number of drugs that will be covered in any therapeutic class. As a result of this legislation and the expansion of federal coverage of products, we expect that there will be additional pressure to reduce costs. While the MMA applies only to drug benefits for Medicare beneficiaries, private payors often follow Medicare coverage policies and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement rates, and any reduction in reimbursement that results from the MMA may cause a similar reduction in payments from private payors. Similar regulations or reimbursement policies may be enacted in international markets which could similarly impact our business.

In addition, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, or collectively ACA, was enacted in 2010 with a goal of reducing the cost of healthcare and substantially changing the way healthcare is financed by both government and private insurers. The ACA, among other things, increases the minimum Medicaid rebates owed by manufacturers under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program and extends the rebate program to individuals enrolled in Medicaid managed care organizations, establishes annual fees and taxes on manufacturers of certain branded prescription drugs and biologic products, and creates a new Medicare Part D coverage gap discount program, in which manufacturers must agree to offer 50% point-of-sale discounts off negotiated prices of applicable brand drugs to eligible beneficiaries during their coverage gap period as a condition for the manufacturer’s outpatient drugs to be covered under Medicare Part D. In addition, other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted in the United States since the ACA was enacted. On August 2, 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011 created measures for spending reductions by Congress. A Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction, tasked with recommending a targeted deficit reduction of at least $1.2 trillion for the years 2013 through 2021, was unable to reach required goals, thereby triggering the legislation’s automatic reduction to several government programs. This includes aggregate reductions of Medicare payments to providers of up to 2% per fiscal year, which went into effect on April 1, 2013 and will remain in effect through 2027 unless additional Congressional action is taken.

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It is likely that federal and state legislatures within the United States and foreign governments will continue to consider changes to existing healthcare legislation. Some of the provisions of the ACA have yet to be fully implemented, while certain provisions have been subject to judicial and Congressional challenges. Since January 2017, President Trump has signed two Executive Orders designed to delay the implementation of certain provisions of the ACA or otherwise circumvent some of the requirements for health insurance mandated by the ACA. One such Executive Order directed federal agencies with authorities and responsibilities under the ACA to waive, defer, grant exemptions from or delay the implementation of any provision of the ACA that would impose a fiscal burden on states or a cost, fee, tax, penalty or regulatory burden on individuals, healthcare providers, health insurers or manufacturers of pharmaceuticals or medical devices. The second Executive Order terminates the cost-sharing subsidies that reimburse insurers under the ACA. Several state Attorneys General filed suit to stop the administration from terminating the subsidies, but their request for a restraining order was denied by a federal judge in California on October 25, 2017. The loss of the cost share reduction payments is expected to increase premiums on certain policies issued by qualified health plans under the ACA. Further, on June 14, 2018, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled that the federal government was not required to pay more than $12 billion in ACA risk corridor payments to third-party payors who argued were owed to them. The effects of this gap in reimbursement on third-party payors, the viability of the ACA marketplace, providers, and potentially our business, are not yet known.

Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since the ACA was enacted, including aggregate reductions to Medicare payments to providers of 2% per fiscal year through 2027. In January 2013, President Obama signed into law the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, which, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to several providers and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years. While Congress has not passed comprehensive repeal legislation, it has enacted laws that modify certain provisions of the ACA, including eliminating a tax-based shared responsibility payment imposed on certain individuals who fail to maintain qualifying health coverage for all or part of a year, which is commonly referred to as the “individual mandate. On December 14, 2018, a U.S. District Court judge in the Northern District of Texas ruled that the individual mandate portion of the ACA is an essential and inseverable feature of the ACA, and therefore because the mandate was repealed, the remaining provisions of the ACA are invalid as well. The Trump administration and CMS have both stated that the ruling will have no immediate effect, and on December 30, 2018 the same judge issued an order staying the judgment pending appeal. It is unclear how this decision and any subsequent appeals and other efforts to repeal and replace the ACA will impact the ACA and our business. Litigation and legislation over the ACA are likely to continue, with unpredictable and uncertain results.

Further, the Trump administration’s budget proposal for fiscal year 2019 contained further drug price control measures that could be enacted during the 2019 budget process or in other future legislation, including, for example, measures to permit Medicare Part D plans to negotiate the price of certain drugs under Medicare Part B, to allow some states to negotiate drug prices under Medicaid, and to eliminate cost sharing for generic drugs for low-income patients. Additionally, the Trump administration released a “Blueprint” to lower drug prices and reduce out of pocket costs of drugs that contains additional proposals to increase manufacturer competition, increase the negotiating power of certain federal healthcare programs, incentivize manufacturers to lower the list price of their products and reduce the out of pocket costs of drug products paid by consumers. In response to the Blueprint, on November 30, 2018, CMS announced a proposed rule that would amend the Medicare Advantage and Medicare Part D prescription drug benefit regulations to reduce out of pocket costs for plan enrollees and allow Medicare plans to negotiate lower rates for certain drugs.  Among other things, the proposed rule changes would allow Medicare Advantage plans to use pre-authorization (PA) and step therapy (ST) for six protected classes of drugs, with certain exceptions, permit plans to implement PA and ST in Medicare Part B drugs, changes the definition of “negotiated prices” in the regulations and adds a definition of “price concession” to the regulation. It is unclear whether these proposed changes will be accepted, and if so, what effect such changes will have on our business and our ability to receive adequate reimbursement for our future products.

We cannot predict the reform initiatives that may be adopted in the future or whether initiatives that have been adopted will be repealed or modified. The continuing efforts of the government, insurance companies, managed care organizations and other payors of healthcare services to contain or reduce costs of healthcare may adversely affect:

We expect that changes and challenges to the ACA, as well as other healthcare reform measures that may be adopted in the future, may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding, more rigorous coverage criteria, new payment methodologies, and additional downward pressure on the price that we receive for any future approved product.

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We face substantial competition, which may result in others discovering, developing or commercializing products before, or more successfully, than we do.

The development and commercialization of new products is highly competitive. Our future success depends on our ability to demonstrate and maintain a competitive advantage with respect to the development and commercialization of our product candidates. Our objective is to develop and commercialize new products with superior efficacy, convenience, tolerability and safety. In many cases, the products that we commercialize will compete with existing, market-leading products.

If AKB-9778 is approved and launched commercially, competing drugs may include generic agents that comprise current standard of care (e.g., latanoprost, timolol, and others) as well as newly approved agents such as Rhopressa, Rhoclatan (Aerie Pharmaceuticals) and Vyzulta (Bausch + Lomb), and others that are in development for the treatment of glaucoma.

Many of our potential competitors have significantly greater financial, manufacturing, marketing, drug development, technical and human resources than we do. Large pharmaceutical companies, in particular, have extensive experience in clinical testing, obtaining regulatory approvals, recruiting patients and in manufacturing pharmaceutical products. Large and established companies such as Aerie Pharmaceuticals, Baush + Lomb, Santen, Novartis, ONO, Takeda, Allergan and others compete in the market for products for the treatment of glaucoma. In particular, these companies have greater experience and expertise in securing government contracts and grants to support their research and development efforts, conducting testing and clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals to market products, manufacturing such products on a broad scale and marketing approved products. These companies also have significantly greater research and marketing capabilities than we do and may also have products that have been approved or are in late stages of development, and have collaborative arrangements in our target markets with leading companies and research institutions. Established pharmaceutical companies may also invest heavily to accelerate discovery and development of novel compounds or to in-license novel compounds that could make the product that we develop obsolete. As a result of all of these factors, our competitors may succeed in obtaining patent protection and/or FDA approval or discovering, developing and commercializing products before, or more effectively than, we do. In addition, any new product that competes with an approved product must demonstrate compelling advantages in efficacy, convenience, tolerability and safety in order to overcome price competition and to be commercially successful. If we are not able to compete effectively against potential competitors, our business will not grow and our financial condition and operations will suffer.

Our product candidates may cause undesirable side effects or have other properties that delay or prevent their regulatory approval or limit their commercial potential.

Undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates or even competing products in development that utilize a common mechanism of action could cause us or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay or halt clinical trials and could result in the denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or other regulatory authorities and potential products liability claims. Serious adverse events deemed to be caused by our product candidates could have a material adverse effect on the development of our product candidates and our business as a whole. The most common drug-related adverse events to date in the clinical trial evaluating the safety and tolerability of AKB-9778 in DME have been dizziness and asymptomatic decreases in blood pressure, and these adverse events may occur in our future planned development of this candidate. Our understanding of the relationship between AKB-9778 and these events, as well as our understanding of adverse events in future clinical trials of other product candidates, may change as we gather more information, and additional unexpected adverse events may be observed.

If we or others identify undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates either before or after receipt of marketing approval, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including:

Any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of our products and could substantially increase commercialization costs.

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Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

If we fail to attract and keep senior management and key scientific personnel, we may be unable to successfully develop our product candidates, conduct our clinical trials and commercialize our products.

We are highly dependent on members of our senior management, including Stephen Hoffman, our Chief Executive Officer, Michael Rogers, our Chief Financial Officer, Joseph Gardner, our President and Founder and former Chief Executive Officer, and Kevin G. Peters, our Chief Scientific Officer. The loss of the services of any of these persons could impede the achievement of our research, development and commercialization objectives.

Recruiting and retaining qualified scientific, clinical, manufacturing and sales and marketing personnel will also be critical to our success. The loss of the services of our executive officers or other key employees could impede the achievement of our research, development and commercialization objectives and seriously harm our ability to successfully implement our business strategy. Furthermore, replacing executive officers and key employees may be difficult and may take an extended period of time because of the limited number of individuals in our industry with the breadth of skills and experience required to successfully develop, gain regulatory approval of and commercialize products. We may be unable to hire, train, retain or motivate these key personnel on acceptable terms given the intense competition among numerous biopharmaceutical companies for similar personnel.

We also experience competition for the hiring of scientific and clinical personnel from universities and research institutions. In addition, we rely on consultants and advisors, including scientific and clinical advisors, to assist us in formulating our research and development and commercialization strategy. Our consultants and advisors may be employed by employers other than us and may have commitments under consulting or advisory contracts with other entities that may limit their availability to us. If we are unable to continue to attract and retain high quality personnel, our ability to pursue our growth strategy will be limited.

Our employees, independent contractors, principal investigators, contract research organizations, consultants and vendors may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements and insider trading.

We are exposed to the risk that our employees, independent contractors, principal investigators, CROs, consultants and vendors may engage in fraudulent conduct or other illegal activity. Misconduct by these parties could include intentional, reckless and/or negligent conduct or unauthorized activities that violate: (1) FDA regulations, including those laws that require the reporting of true, complete and accurate information to the FDA, (2) manufacturing standards, (3) federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations, or (4) laws that require the reporting of true and accurate financial information and data. Specifically, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. It is not always possible to identify and deter misconduct by employees and other third parties, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and if we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including the imposition of civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, monetary fines, possible exclusion from participation in Medicare, Medicaid and other federal healthcare programs, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, and curtailment of our operations, any of which could adversely affect our ability to operate our business and our results of operations.

We may encounter difficulties in managing our growth and expanding our operations successfully.

As we seek to advance our product candidates through clinical trials and commercialization, we will need to expand our development, regulatory, manufacturing, marketing and sales capabilities or contract with third parties to provide these capabilities for us. As our operations expand, we expect that we will need to manage additional relationships with various strategic collaborators, suppliers and other third parties. Future growth will impose significant added responsibilities on members of management. Our future financial performance and our ability to commercialize AKB-9778, if approved, and any other product candidates and to compete effectively will depend, in part, on our ability to manage any future growth effectively. To that end, we must be able to manage our development efforts and clinical trials effectively and hire, train and integrate additional management, administrative and, if necessary, sales and marketing personnel. We may not be able to accomplish these tasks, and our failure to accomplish any of them could prevent us from successfully growing our company.

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If product liability lawsuits are brought against us, we may incur substantial liabilities and may be required to limit commercialization of our product candidates.

We face an inherent risk of product liability as a result of the clinical testing of our product candidates and will face an even greater risk if we commercialize any products. For example, we may be sued if any product we develop allegedly causes injury or is found to be otherwise unsuitable during product testing, manufacturing, marketing or sale. Any such product liability claims may include allegations of defects in manufacturing, defects in design, a failure to warn of dangers inherent in the product, negligence, strict liability and a breach of warranties. Claims could also be asserted under state consumer protection acts. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against product liability claims, we may incur substantial liabilities or be required to limit commercialization of our product candidates. Even a successful defense would require significant financial and management resources. Regardless of the merits or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

Failure to obtain and retain sufficient product liability insurance at an acceptable cost to protect against potential product liability claims could prevent or inhibit the commercialization of products we develop. We currently carry product liability insurance covering our clinical trials in the amount of $10 million in the aggregate. Although we maintain product liability insurance, any claim that may be brought against us could result in a court judgment or settlement in an amount that is not covered, in whole or in part, by our insurance or that is in excess of the limits of our insurance coverage. Our insurance policies also have various exclusions, and we may be subject to a product liability claim for which we have no coverage. We will have to pay any amounts awarded by a court or negotiated in a settlement that exceed our coverage limitations or that are not covered by our insurance, and we may not have, or be able to obtain, sufficient capital to pay such amounts.

If we fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could harm our business.

We are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. Our operations involve the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials. Our operations also produce hazardous waste products. We generally contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and wastes. We cannot eliminate the risk of contamination or injury from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from our use of hazardous materials, we could be held liable for any resulting damages, and any liability could exceed our resources. We also could incur significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties for failure to comply with such laws and regulations.

Although we maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials, this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. We do not maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us in connection with our storage or disposal of biological, hazardous or radioactive materials.

In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. These current or future laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. Our failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

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Our business and operations would suffer if we sustain cyber-attacks or other privacy or data security incidents that result in security breaches.

Our information technology may be subject to cyber-attacks, security breaches or computer hacking. Experienced computer programmers and hackers may be able to penetrate our security controls and misappropriate or compromise sensitive personal, proprietary or confidential information, create system disruptions or cause shutdowns. They also may be able to develop and deploy malicious software programs that attack our systems or otherwise exploit any security vulnerabilities. Our systems and the data stored on those systems may also be vulnerable to security incidents or security attacks, acts of vandalism or theft, misplaced or lost data, human errors, or other similar events that could negatively affect our systems and our data, as well as the data of our business partners. Further, third parties that provide services to us, could also be a source of security risk in the event of a failure of their own security systems and infrastructure.

The costs to eliminate or address the foregoing security threats and vulnerabilities before or after a cyber-incident could be significant. Our remediation efforts may not be successful and could result in interruptions, delays or cessation of service, and loss of existing or potential suppliers, manufacturers or other third parties. In addition, breaches of our security measures and the unauthorized dissemination of sensitive personal, proprietary or confidential information about us, our business partners, participants in our clinical trials or other third parties could expose us to significant potential liability and reputational harm. In addition, the loss of clinical trial data from completed or ongoing or planned clinical trials as a result of a data security incident or other systems failure could result in delays in our regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. As threats related to cyber-attacks develop and grow, we may also find it necessary to make additional investments to protect our data and infrastructure, which may impact our profitability. We could also be negatively impacted by existing and proposed laws and regulations, as well as government policies and practices related to cybersecurity, data privacy, data localization and data protection such as GDPR.

We face risks arising from the results of the public referendum held in United Kingdom and its membership in the European Union.

The ongoing developments following from the United Kingdom’s public referendum vote to exit from the European Union could cause disruptions to and create uncertainty surrounding our business, including affecting our relationships with existing and potential suppliers, manufacturers and other third parties. Negotiations have commenced to determine the terms of the United Kingdom’s future relationship with the European Union, including the terms of trade between the United Kingdom and the European Union. The effects of Brexit will depend upon any agreements the United Kingdom makes to retain access to European Union markets either during a transitional period or more permanently. The measures could potentially have corporate structural consequences, adversely change tax benefits or liabilities in these or other jurisdictions and could disrupt some of the markets and jurisdictions in which we operate. In addition, Brexit could lead to legal uncertainty and potentially divergent national laws and regulations as the United Kingdom determines which European Union laws to replace or replicate. In addition, the announcement of Brexit has caused significant volatility in global stock markets and currency exchange rate fluctuations, including the strengthening of the USD against some foreign currencies, and the Brexit negotiations may continue to cause significant volatility. The progress and outcomes of Brexit negotiations also may create global economic uncertainty. Any of these effects of Brexit, among others, could materially adversely affect the business, business opportunities, and financial condition of our company.

Risks Related to Ownership of Our Common Stock

We are eligible to be treated as an “emerging growth company” as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, and we cannot be certain if the reduced disclosure requirements applicable to emerging growth companies will make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are an “emerging growth company”, as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act. For as long as we continue to be an emerging growth company, we may take advantage of exemptions from various reporting requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies. These exemptions include:

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We have taken advantage of these reduced reporting burdens. In particular, we have provided only two years of audited consolidated financial statements and have not included all of the executive compensation related information that would be required if we were not an emerging growth company. Investors may find our common stock less attractive if we continue to rely on these exemptions. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our stock price may be more volatile. In addition, the JOBS Act provides that an emerging growth company can take advantage of an extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards. This allows an emerging growth company to delay the adoption of these accounting standards until they would otherwise apply to private companies. We have irrevocably elected not to avail ourselves of this exemption and, therefore, we will be subject to the same new or revised accounting standards as other public companies that are not emerging growth companies.

We could be an emerging growth company for up to five years, although circumstances could cause us to lose that status earlier, including if the market value of our common stock held by non-affiliates exceeds $700 million as of any June 30 before that time or if we have total annual gross revenue of $1.07 billion (as may be inflation-adjusted by the SEC from time to time) or more during any fiscal year before that time, in which cases we would no longer be an emerging growth company as of the following December 31 or, if we issue more than $1.07 billion in non-convertible debt during any three-year period before that time, we would cease to be an emerging growth company immediately. Even after we no longer qualify as an emerging growth company, we may still qualify as a “smaller reporting company” if the market value of our common stock held by non-affiliates is below $250 million as of June 30 in any given year (or $700 million if we had less than $100 million in revenues), which would allow us to take advantage of many of the same exemptions from disclosure requirements, including exemption from the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation in our periodic reports and proxy statements.

FINRA sales practice requirements may limit a stockholder’s ability to buy and sell our stock.

The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, or FINRA, has adopted rules requiring that, in recommending an investment to a customer, a broker-dealer must have reasonable grounds for believing that the investment is suitable for that customer. Prior to recommending speculative or low-priced securities to their non-institutional customers, broker-dealers must make reasonable efforts to obtain information about the customer’s financial status, tax status, investment objectives and other information. Under interpretations of these rules, FINRA has indicated its belief that there is a high probability that speculative or low-priced securities will not be suitable for at least some customers. If these FINRA requirements are applicable to us or our securities, they may make it more difficult for broker-dealers to recommend that at least some of their customers buy our common stock, which may limit the ability of our stockholders to buy and sell our common stock and could have an adverse effect on the market for and price of our common stock.

The market price of our common stock may be highly volatile, and may be influenced by numerous factors, some of which are beyond our control.

The market price of our common stock is likely to be volatile. Since our common stock became listed on Nasdaq Capital Market on June 26, 2018, the trading price of our common stock has ranged from $0.88 to $4.35 per share.  The market price of our common stock  may continue to fluctuate substantially due to a variety of factors, including market perception of our ability to meet our growth projections and expectations, quarterly operating results of other companies in the same industry, trading volume in our common stock, changes in general conditions in the economy and the financial markets or other developments affecting our business and the business of others in our industry. In addition, the stock market itself is subject to extreme price and volume fluctuations. This volatility has had a significant effect on the market price of securities issued by many companies for reasons related and unrelated to their operating performance and could have the same effect on our common stock. The market price of shares of our common stock may continue to be subject to wide fluctuations in response to many risk factors listed in this section, and others beyond our control, including:

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In addition, the stock market has recently experienced significant volatility, particularly with respect to pharmaceutical, biotechnology and other life sciences company stocks. The volatility of pharmaceutical, biotechnology and other life sciences company stocks often does not relate to the operating performance of the companies represented by the stock. As we operate in a single industry, we are especially vulnerable to these factors to the extent that they affect our industry or our products, or to a lesser extent our markets. In the past, securities class action litigation has often been initiated against companies following periods of volatility in their stock price. This type of litigation could result in substantial costs and divert our management’s attention and resources and could also require us to make substantial payments to satisfy judgments or to settle litigation.

If we are unable to maintain compliance with Nasdaq Capital Market listing standards, including maintenance of at least $2.5 million of stockholders’ equity and maintenance of a $1.00 minimum bid price, our common stock may be delisted from the Nasdaq Capital Market and you may face significant restrictions on the resale of your shares due to state “blue sky” laws.

There can be no assurances that we will be able to maintain our Nasdaq Capital Market listing in the future. In the event we are unable to maintain compliance with the Nasdaq Capital Market listing standards and our common stock is delisted from the Nasdaq Capital Market, it would, among other things, likely lead to a number of negative implications, including an adverse effect on the price of our common stock, reduced liquidity in our common stock, the loss of federal preemption of state securities laws and greater difficulty in obtaining financing. In the event of a de-listing, we would take actions to restore our compliance with Nasdaq’s listing requirements, but we can provide no assurance that any such action taken by us would allow our common stock to become listed again, stabilize the market price or improve the liquidity of our common stock, prevent our common stock from dropping below the Nasdaq Capital Market minimum bid price requirement or prevent future non-compliance with Nasdaq’s listing requirements. If we cannot restore our compliance with Nasdaq’s listing requirements, we would pursue eligibility for trading of these securities on other markets or exchanges, such as the OTCQB or OTCQX, which are unorganized, inter-dealer, over-the-counter markets which provides significantly less liquidity than the Nasdaq Capital Market or other national securities exchanges.

Furthermore, each state has its own securities laws, often called “blue sky” laws, which (1) limit sales of securities to a state’s residents unless the securities are registered in that state or qualify for an exemption from registration, and (2) govern the reporting requirements for broker-dealers doing business directly or indirectly in the state. Before a security is sold in a state, there must be a registration in place to cover the transaction, or it must be exempt from registration. The applicable broker-dealer must also be registered in that state. If we fail to maintain our Nasdaq Capital Market listing, then we may not be considered to be on a national exchange and do not know whether our securities will be registered or exempt from registration under the laws of any state. A determination regarding registration will be made by those broker-dealers, if any, who agree to serve as market makers for our common stock. There may be significant state blue sky law restrictions on the ability of investors to sell, and on purchasers to buy, our securities. You should therefore consider the resale market for our common stock to be limited, as you may be unable to resell your shares without the significant expense of state registration or qualification.

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Our principal stockholders and management own a significant percentage of our stock and will be able to exercise significant influence over matters subject to stockholder approval.

As of March 31, 2019, our executive officers, directors and principal stockholders, together with their respective affiliates, owned approximately 44.3% of our common stock, including shares subject to outstanding options that are exercisable within 60 days after such date. Accordingly, these stockholders will be able to exert a significant degree of influence over our management and affairs and over matters requiring stockholder approval, including the election of our board of directors and approval of significant corporate transactions. This concentration of ownership could have the effect of entrenching our management and/or the board of directors, delaying or preventing a change in our control or otherwise discouraging a potential acquirer from attempting to obtain control of us, which in turn could have a material and adverse effect on the fair market value of our common stock.

Because we became a reporting company under the Exchange Act by means other than a traditional underwritten initial public offering, we may not be able to attract the attention of research analysts at major brokerage firms.

Because we did not become a reporting company by conducting an underwritten initial public offering of our common stock, and because we only recently became listed on a national securities exchange, we may obtain research coverage from fewer analysts than we would have obtained. In addition, investment banks may be less likely to agree to underwrite secondary offerings on our behalf or recommend the purchase of our common stock than if we became a public reporting company by means of an underwritten initial public offering, because they may be less familiar with our company as a result of more limited coverage by analysts and the media, and because we became public at an early stage in our development. The failure to receive research coverage or support in the market for our shares could have an adverse effect on our ability to develop a liquid market for our common stock.

The resale of shares covered by a registration statement could adversely affect the market price of our common stock in the public market, should one develop, which result would in turn negatively affect our ability to raise additional equity capital.

The sale, or availability for sale, of our common stock in the public market may adversely affect the prevailing market price of our common stock and may impair our ability to raise additional capital by selling equity or equity-linked securities. We filed and caused to become effective a registration statement with the SEC registering the resale of 27,367,117 shares of our common stock issued in connection with the reverse merger and the concurrent private placement offering in March 2017 and an additional registration statement covering 2,973,682 shares purchased by certain stockholders in June 2018 and subsequent open market purchases. This registration statement permits the resale of these shares at any time. The resale of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could adversely affect the market price for our common stock and make it more difficult for you to sell shares of our common stock at times and prices that you feel are appropriate. Furthermore, we expect that, because there will be a large number of shares registered pursuant to a registration statement, selling stockholders will continue to offer shares covered by such registration statement for a significant period of time, the precise duration of which cannot be predicted. Accordingly, the adverse market and price pressures resulting from an offering pursuant to a registration statement may continue for an extended period of time and continued negative pressure on the market price of our common stock could have a material adverse effect on our ability to raise additional equity capital.

Issuance of stock to fund our operations may dilute your investment and reduce your equity interest.

We may need to raise capital in the future to fund the development of our drug candidates or for other purposes. Any equity financing may have significant dilutive effect to stockholders and a material decrease in our stockholders’ equity interest in us. Equity financing, if obtained, could result in substantial dilution to our existing stockholders. At its sole discretion, our board of directors may issue additional securities without seeking stockholder approval, and we do not know when we will need additional capital or, if we do, whether it will be available to us.

We have broad discretion in the use of our cash and may not use them effectively.

We currently intend to use our cash and cash equivalents for continuing clinical development of AKB-9778 in patients with primary open angle glaucoma and ocular hypertension, including the preparation for and initiation of the planned Phase 1b clinical trial, early research on antibody therapies that inhibit VE-PTP, and for working capital and other general corporate purposes. Although we currently intend to use our cash and cash equivalents in such a manner, we will have broad discretion in the application of such cash and cash equivalents. Our failure to apply these funds effectively could affect our ability to continue to develop and commercialize our product candidates. Pending their use, we may invest our cash and cash equivalents in a manner that does not produce income or loses value.

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As a result of recently becoming a public company, we are incurring increased costs and our management devotes substantial time to public company compliance programs.

As a public company, we incur significant legal, insurance, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. In addition, our administrative staff is required to perform additional tasks. We are investing resources to comply with evolving laws, regulations and standards, and this investment will result in increased general and administrative expenses and may divert management’s time and attention from product development activities. If our efforts to comply with new laws, regulations and standards differ from the activities intended by regulatory or governing bodies due to ambiguities related to practice, regulatory authorities may initiate legal proceedings against us and our business may be harmed. In connection with the reverse merger, pursuant to which we acquired Aerpio, we increased our directors’ and officers’ insurance coverage, which increased our insurance cost. In the future, it will be more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain coverage. These factors could also make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified members of our board of directors, particularly to serve on our audit committee and compensation committee, and qualified executive officers.

In addition, in order to comply with the requirements of being a public company, we may need to undertake various actions, including implementing new internal controls and procedures and hiring new accounting or internal audit staff. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act requires that we maintain effective disclosure controls and procedures and internal control over financial reporting. We are continuing to develop and refine our disclosure controls and other procedures that are designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by us in the reports that we file with the SEC is recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in the SEC’s rules and forms, and that information required to be disclosed in reports under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 as amended, or the Exchange Act, is accumulated and communicated to our principal executive and financial officers. Any failure to develop or maintain effective controls could adversely affect the results of periodic management evaluations. In the event we are not able to demonstrate compliance with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, our internal control over financial reporting is perceived as inadequate, or we are unable to produce timely or accurate financial statements, investors may lose confidence in our operating results and the price of our ordinary shares could decline. In addition, if we are unable to continue to meet these requirements, we may not be able to maintain our listing on a national securities exchange.

Our management team and board of directors will need to devote significant efforts to maintaining adequate and effective disclosure controls and procedures and internal control over financial reporting in order to comply with applicable regulations, which may include hiring additional legal, financial reporting and other finance and accounting staff and engaging consultants to assist in designing and implementing such procedures. Additionally, any of our efforts to improve our internal controls and design, implement and maintain an adequate system of disclosure controls may not be successful and will require that we expend significant cash and other resources. In addition, our management will be required to certify financial and other information in our quarterly and annual reports and provide an annual management report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting commencing with our second annual report. This assessment will need to include the disclosure of any material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting identified by our management or our independent registered public accounting firm. To achieve compliance with Section 404 within the prescribed period, we will be engaged in a process to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. In this regard, we will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, potentially engage outside consultants and adopt a detailed work plan to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue steps to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. Despite our efforts, there is a risk that we will not be able to conclude, within the prescribed timeframe or at all, that our internal control over financial reporting is effective as required by Section 404. If we identify one or more material weaknesses, it could result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our consolidated financial statements.

Our independent registered public accounting firm will not be required to formally attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting following this annual report until the first annual report required to be filed with the SEC following the date we are no longer an “emerging growth company” as defined in the JOBS Act. We cannot assure you that there will not be material weaknesses or significant deficiencies in our internal controls in the future.

Provisions in our charter documents and Delaware law may have anti-takeover effects that could discourage an acquisition of us by others, even if an acquisition would be beneficial to our stockholders, and may prevent attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws may have the effect of discouraging, delaying or preventing a change in control of us or changes in our management. These provisions could also limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for shares of our common stock, thereby depressing the market price of our common stock. In addition, because our board of directors is responsible for appointing the members of our management team, these provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors. Among other things, these provisions:

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These provisions, alone or together, could delay or prevent hostile takeovers and changes in control or changes in our management.

Moreover, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which prohibits a person who owns in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us for a period of three years after the date of the transaction in which the person acquired in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock, unless the merger or combination is approved in a prescribed manner.

Any provision of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, our amended and restated by-laws or Delaware law that has the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control could limit the opportunity for our stockholders to receive a premium for their shares of our common stock, and could also affect the price that some investors are willing to pay for our common stock.

Our ability to use net operating losses to offset future taxable income may be subject to certain limitations.

In general, under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code, a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change” is subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change net operating losses, or NOLs, to offset future taxable income. Our existing NOLs may be subject to substantial limitations arising from previous ownership changes under Section 382 of the Code. Future analysis will still be required on any historical NOLs as no studies have been performed to evaluate a change in ownership. In addition, future changes in our stock ownership, many of which are outside of our control, could result in an ownership change under Section 382 of the Code. Our NOLs may also be impaired under state law. Accordingly, we may not be able to utilize a material portion of our NOLs. Furthermore, our ability to utilize our NOLs is conditioned upon our attaining profitability and generating U.S. federal taxable income. As described above under “—Risks related to our financial position and need for additional capital,” we have incurred significant net losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future; thus, we do not know whether or when we will generate the U.S. federal taxable income necessary to utilize our NOLs. A full valuation allowance has been provided for the entire amount of our NOLs.

Because we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our capital stock in the foreseeable future, capital appreciation, if any, will be your sole source of gain.

You should not rely on an investment in our common stock to provide dividend income. We do not anticipate that we will pay any cash dividends to holders of our common stock in the foreseeable future. Instead, we plan to retain any earnings to maintain and expand our operations. In addition, any future debt financing arrangement may contain terms prohibiting or limiting the amount of dividends that may be declared or paid on our common stock. Accordingly, investors must rely on sales of their common stock after price appreciation, which may never occur, as the only way to realize any return on their investment. As a result, investors seeking cash dividends should not purchase our common stock.

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On December 22, 2017, The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “2017 Tax Act”) was enacted and could have a material impact on our current and future income tax provision and disclosures.

Our effective tax rates could be affected by numerous factors, such as intercompany transactions, entry into new businesses and geographies, changes to our existing businesses and operations, acquisitions and investments and how they are financed, potential changes in our stock price, changes in our deferred tax assets and liabilities and their valuation, and changes in the relevant tax, accounting, and other laws, regulations, administrative practices, principles, and interpretations.  Finally, U.S. State governments may enact tax laws in response to the 2017 Tax Act that could result in further changes to taxation and materially affect our financial position and results of operations.

The 2017 Tax Act significantly changes how the U.S. taxes corporations. The 2017 Tax Act, among other things, contains significant changes to corporate taxation, including reduction of the corporate tax rate from a top marginal rate of 35% to a flat rate of 21%, limitation of the tax deduction for interest expense, limitation of the deduction for net operating losses and elimination of net operating loss carrybacks, in each case, for losses arising in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017 (though any such tax losses may be carried forward indefinitely), and modifying or repealing many business deductions and credits. The 2017 Tax Act requires complex computations to be performed that were not previously required in U.S. tax law, significant judgments to be made in interpretation of the provisions of 2017 Tax Act and significant estimates in calculations, and the preparation and analysis of information not previously relevant or regularly produced. The U.S. Treasury Department, the IRS, and other standard-setting bodies could interpret or issue guidance on how provisions of the 2017 Tax Act will be applied or otherwise administered that is different from our interpretation. We have completed our determination of the accounting implications of the 2017 Tax Act during 2018 upon filing our Federal Income Tax Return, and there were no material adjustments to the Company’s provisional estimate with the 2018 provision for income taxes.

An active trading market for our common stock may not develop or be sustainable. If an active trading market does not develop, investors may not be able to resell their shares at or above the purchase price and our ability to raise capital in the future may be impaired.

Our common stock was recently listed on The Nasdaq Capital Market on June 26, 2018. The initial listing price for our common stock was determined through negotiations with the underwriters. This price may not reflect the price at which investors in the market will be willing to buy and sell our shares. Although our common stock is listed on The Nasdaq Capital Market, an active trading market for our shares may never develop or, if developed, be maintained. If an active market for our common stock does not develop or is not maintained, it may be difficult for you to sell shares you purchase without depressing the market price for the shares or at all. An inactive trading market may also impair our ability to raise capital to continue to fund operations by selling shares and may impair our ability to acquire other companies or technologies by using our shares as consideration.

Item 2. Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds.

None

Item 3. Defaults Upon Senior Securities.

None

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures.

Not applicable.

Item 5. Other Information.

None

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Item 6. Exhibits.

Furnish the exhibits required by Item 601 of Regulation S-K (§ 229.601 of this chapter).

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SIGNATURES

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned thereunto duly authorized.

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