ALLEGHANY CORP /DE - Annual Report: 2021 (Form 10-K)

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

Form 10-K

☑ ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021

or

☐ TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the transition period from to

Commission file number 1-9371

ALLEGHANY CORPORATION

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code:

212-752-1356

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act:

Not applicable

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.

Yes ☑ No ☐

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act.

Yes ☐ No ☑

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.

Yes ☑ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).

Yes ☑ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act. (Check one):

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☑

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Act).

Yes ☐ No ☑

The aggregate market value of voting and non-voting common shares held by non-affiliates of the registrant as of June 30, 2021 (the last business day of the registrant’s most recently completed second fiscal quarter) was approximately $8,961,756,584 based on the closing sale price of the registrant’s common shares on the New York Stock Exchange on that date.

As of February 13, 2022, 13,529,546 shares of the registrant’s common stock, par value $1.00 per share, were outstanding.

ALLEGHANY CORPORATION

Table of Contents

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ALLEGHANY CORPORATION

References in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021, or this “Form 10-K,” to the “Company,” “Alleghany,” “we,” “us,” and “our” refer to Alleghany Corporation and its consolidated subsidiaries unless the context otherwise requires. In addition, unless the context otherwise requires, references to:

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NOTE ON FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

Certain statements contained in this Form 10-K may be deemed to be “forward-looking statements” within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Forward-looking statements may be identified by the use of words such as “may,” “will,” “expect,” “project,” “estimate,” “anticipate,” “plan,” “believe,” “potential,” “should” or the negative versions of those words or other comparable words. Forward-looking statements do not relate solely to historical or current facts, rather they are based on management’s expectations as well as certain assumptions and estimates made by, and information available to, management at the time. These statements are not guarantees of future performance. These forward-looking statements are based upon Alleghany’s current expectations and are subject to a number of uncertainties and risks that could significantly affect current plans, anticipated actions and Alleghany’s future financial condition and results. Factors that could cause these forward-looking statements to differ, possibly materially, from that currently contemplated include:

Additional risks and uncertainties include general economic and political conditions, including the effects of a prolonged U.S. or global economic downturn or recession; changes in costs; variations in political, economic or other factors; risks relating to conducting operations in a competitive environment; effects of acquisition and disposition activities, inflation rates, or recessionary or expansive trends; changes in interest rates; extended labor disruptions, civil unrest, or other external factors over which we have no control; changes in our plans, strategies, objectives, expectations, or intentions, which may happen at any time at our discretion; and other factors discussed in this Form 10-K and subsequent filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the “SEC.” All forward-looking statements speak only as of the date they are made and are based on information available at that time. Alleghany does not undertake any obligation to update or revise any forward-looking statements to reflect subsequent circumstances or events. See Part I, Item 1A, “Risk Factors” of this Form 10-K for additional information.

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PART I

Item 1. Business.

Overview

Alleghany Corporation owns and supports certain operating subsidiaries and manages investments, anchored by a core position in property and casualty reinsurance and insurance. Alleghany Corporation, incorporated in Delaware in 1984, is the successor company to Alleghany Corporation, a Maryland corporation, which was founded in 1929. Through TransRe, a wholly-owned Alleghany subsidiary since March 2012, we are engaged in the property and casualty reinsurance business. Through AIHL, a wholly-owned intermediate holding company, we are engaged in the property and casualty insurance business. AIHL’s principal insurance company subsidiaries are RSUI and CapSpecialty. RSUI and CapSpecialty have been subsidiaries of AIHL since July 2003 and January 2002, respectively. AIHL Re, a Vermont captive reinsurance company which provides reinsurance to Alleghany’s current and former insurance operating subsidiaries and affiliates, has been a wholly-owned subsidiary of Alleghany since its formation in May 2006.

Although our primary sources of revenues and earnings are our reinsurance and insurance operations and investments, we also generate revenues and earnings from a diverse portfolio of non-financial businesses that are owned and managed through our wholly-owned subsidiary Alleghany Capital. Alleghany Capital’s businesses include: PCT; Kentucky Trailer; IPS; Jazwares; W&W|AFCO Steel; Concord; Wilbert; and Piedmont.

In addition, we own certain other holding company investments. Our wholly-owned subsidiary Alleghany Properties owns and manages certain properties in the Sacramento, California region. Our public equity investments are managed primarily through our wholly-owned subsidiary Roundwood. Prior to its December 31, 2020 sale, SORC was our wholly-owned subsidiary.

As of December 31, 2021, we had total assets of $32.3 billion and total stockholders’ equity attributable to Alleghany stockholders of $9.2 billion.

Our principal executive offices are located in leased office space at 1411 Broadway, 34th Floor, New York, New York, 10018. Our telephone number is (212) 752-1356. Our Annual Reports on Form 10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Form 8-K and amendments to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the “Exchange Act,” are available, free of charge, on our website at www.alleghany.com, as soon as reasonably practicable after we electronically file this material with, or furnish it to, the SEC. Reports and other information we file with the SEC may also be viewed at the SEC’s website at www.sec.gov. Our Financial Personnel Code of Ethics, Employee Code of Business Conduct and Ethics, Director Code of Business Conduct and Ethics, Code of Business Conduct and Ethics for our Business Partners, Corporate Governance Guidelines and the charters for our Audit, Compensation and Environmental, Social and Governance Committees are also available on our website. In addition, interested parties may obtain, free of charge, copies of any of the above reports or documents upon request to the Secretary of Alleghany.

Segment Information

Our segments are reported in a manner consistent with the way management evaluates the businesses. As such, we classify our businesses into three reportable segments – reinsurance, insurance and Alleghany Capital. Reinsurance and insurance underwriting activities are evaluated separately from investment and other activities.

Corporate activities are not classified as a segment. The primary components of corporate activities are Alleghany Properties, activities at the Alleghany parent company and, prior to its December 31, 2020 sale, SORC.

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In 2021, our reinsurance and insurance segments constituted the majority of our total consolidated revenues, as follows:

2021 Revenues

See below and Note 13 to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for an analysis of our underwriting results by segment and other activities, and Part II, Item 7, “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Consolidated Results of Operations.”

Reinsurance Segment

General. The reinsurance segment consists of property and casualty reinsurance operations conducted by TransRe’s reinsurance operating subsidiaries. TransRe’s operating subsidiaries also write a modest amount of property and casualty insurance business, which is included in the reinsurance segment.

TransRe, through its principal, wholly-owned subsidiaries Transatlantic Reinsurance Company, or “TRC,” TransRe London Ltd., or “TRL,” and TransRe Europe S.A., or “TRESA,” provides property and casualty reinsurance to insurance and other reinsurance companies. These products are distributed both through brokers and on a direct basis in domestic and foreign markets. Domestically, TransRe is headquartered in New York, New York and has nine other office locations in the U.S. TransRe also has operations worldwide, including: Africa, Australia, Bermuda, Canada, Asia (where it has five locations), South America (where it has two locations), the U.K. and Europe (where it has five locations). TRC is licensed, accredited or otherwise approved as a reinsurer in all 50 states and the District of Columbia in the U.S. and in Puerto Rico and Guam. TRC is also licensed in Bermuda, Canada, Japan, the U.K., Mexico, several countries in South and Central America and the Caribbean, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, Australia and Singapore. In addition, TRL is licensed as a reinsurer in the U.K. and TRESA is licensed as a reinsurer in Luxembourg and the Dubai International Financial Centre, or "DIFC".

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The reinsurance segment constitutes the majority of our consolidated net premiums written and is reported through two major product lines, “property” and “casualty & specialty.”

2021 Net Premiums Written

Reinsurance contracts are generally classified as treaty or facultative contracts. TransRe provides property and casualty reinsurance on both a treaty and facultative basis. Treaty reinsurance is a contractual arrangement that provides for the automatic reinsuring of all or a portion of a specified class of risk underwritten by the ceding company. Facultative reinsurance is the reinsurance of individual risks. Rather than agreeing to reinsure all or a portion of a class of risk, the reinsurer separately rates and underwrites each risk. Facultative reinsurance is normally purchased for risks not covered by treaty reinsurance or for individual risks covered by reinsurance treaties that are in need of capacity beyond that provided by such treaties.

A ceding company’s reinsurance program may involve pro rata and excess-of-loss reinsurance on both a treaty and facultative basis. TransRe provides pro rata and excess-of-loss reinsurance for most major lines of business. Under pro rata reinsurance (also referred to as proportional or quota share reinsurance), the ceding company and the reinsurer share the premiums as well as the losses and expenses in an agreed proportion, and such proportional sharing of losses may be subject to a predetermined limit. As pro rata business is a proportional sharing of premiums and losses between the ceding company and the reinsurer, generally the underwriting results of such business more closely reflect the underwriting results of the business ceded than do the results of excess-of-loss business. In pro rata reinsurance, the reinsurer generally pays the ceding company a ceding commission, which is generally based on the ceding company’s cost of obtaining the business being reinsured, such as brokers’ and agents’ commissions, local taxes and administrative expenses. Under excess-of-loss reinsurance (also referred to as non-proportional reinsurance), the reinsurer indemnifies the ceding company for all or a portion of the losses in excess of a predetermined amount, usually up to a predetermined limit. Premiums paid by the ceding company to the reinsurer for excess-of-loss coverage are generally not proportional to the premiums that the ceding company receives because the reinsurer does not assume a proportionate risk. Often there is no ceding commission on excess-of-loss reinsurance and therefore the pricing mechanism used by reinsurers in those instances is a rate applicable to premiums of the individual policy or policies subject to the reinsurance agreement. Both pro rata and excess-of-loss reinsurance may provide for aggregate limits of indemnification.

In July 2016, TransRe entered into a five-year agreement with General Reinsurance Corporation, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway Inc., for TransRe to act as exclusive underwriting manager on behalf of General Reinsurance Corporation for U.S. and Canadian property and casualty treaty reinsurance business produced by brokers and intermediaries. Fees earned under this agreement are recognized as product and service revenues on a pro rata basis over the term of the underlying reinsurance contracts. This agreement was not renewed by mutual consent after the five-year term expired in July 2021.

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As of December 31, 2021, the statutory surplus of TRC was $5.1 billion, as determined in accordance with statutory accounting principles, or “SAP,” and the consolidated equity of TransRe was $5.4 billion, as determined in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S., or “GAAP.”

Distribution. TransRe provides property and casualty reinsurance through brokers as well as directly to insurance and reinsurance companies in domestic and foreign markets. In 2021, approximately 84 percent of TransRe’s gross premiums written were written through brokers with the balance written directly with ceding company clients. In the reinsurance brokerage industry, brokers are engaged by the ceding companies to place reinsurance on their behalf. In 2021, companies controlled by Aon plc, Marsh & McLennan Companies, Inc. and TigerRisk Partners, LLC were TransRe’s largest brokerage sources of business, accounting for approximately 30 percent, 23 percent and 10 percent, respectively, of gross premiums written. The reinsurance brokerage industry is dominated by certain of these brokers. Due to the substantial percentages of premiums written through these brokers, the loss of business from any one of them could have a material adverse effect on TransRe’s business.

Underwriting. TransRe’s underwriting process emphasizes a team approach among TransRe’s underwriters, actuaries, claims staff and senior management, as appropriate. Treaties are reviewed for compliance with TransRe’s underwriting guidelines and objectives, and most treaties are evaluated in part based upon actuarial analyses conducted by TransRe. TransRe’s actuaries are independent from the underwriting department and are responsible for providing underwriters objective account analyses utilizing available industry and account-specific data along with industry and proprietary actuarial models. TransRe’s actuarial models used in such analyses are tailored in each case to the exposures and experience underlying the specific treaty and the loss experience for the risks covered. Property catastrophe-exposed treaties are generally evaluated using industry standard models, as well as proprietary TransRe models. These models are used as a guide for risk assessment and portfolio optimization and are continually updated. TransRe also frequently conducts underwriting and claims audits at the offices of a ceding company before and after entering into major treaties. This is because reinsurers, including TransRe, do not separately evaluate each of the individual risks assumed under such treaties and, consequently, are largely dependent on the original underwriting decisions made by the ceding company. Such dependence subjects TransRe, and reinsurers in general, to the possibility that the ceding companies have not adequately evaluated and priced the risks to be reinsured and, therefore, that the premiums ceded may not adequately compensate TransRe for the risk assumed.

TransRe often seeks to lead treaty placements. The lead reinsurer on a treaty generally accepts one of the largest percentage shares of the treaty and therefore has significant influence in negotiating price, terms and conditions. TransRe may decline any treaty business offered to it based upon its assessment of all relevant factors. Such factors include type and level of risk assumed; actuarial and underwriting judgment with respect to rate adequacy; various treaty terms; prior and anticipated loss experience (including exposure to natural and man-made catastrophes) on the treaty; prior business experience with the ceding company; overall financial position; operating results; ratings from credit rating agencies of the ceding company; and social, legal, regulatory, environmental and general economic conditions affecting the risks assumed or the ceding company.

Ratings. TRC, TRL and TRESA are rated A+ by Standard & Poor’s Ratings Services, or “S&P,” and A+ (Superior) by A.M. Best Company, Inc., or “A.M. Best,” and TRC is rated A1 by Moody’s Investors Service Inc., or “Moody’s.” Additional information regarding ratings and the risks related to ratings from ratings agencies can be found on page 51 of this Form 10-K.

Insurance Segment

The insurance segment consists of property and casualty insurance operations conducted in the U.S. by AIHL through RSUI, headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, and CapSpecialty, headquartered in Hartford, Connecticut. AIHL Re, our Vermont-domiciled captive reinsurance company, provides reinsurance to our current and former insurance operating subsidiaries and affiliates. Unless we state otherwise, references to AIHL include the operations of RSUI, CapSpecialty and AIHL Re.

The insurance segment constitutes a smaller portion of our consolidated net premiums written and is reported through our RSUI and CapSpecialty subsidiaries.

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2021 Net Premiums Written

RSUI

General. RSUI conducts its insurance operations through its wholly-owned insurance company subsidiaries RSUI Indemnity Company, or “RIC,” Landmark American Insurance Company, or “Landmark,” and Covington Specialty Insurance Company, or “Covington.” RSUI’s operating subsidiaries write specialty insurance coverages in the property, umbrella/excess liability, general liability, directors’ and officers’ liability and professional liability lines of business. RSUI’s operating subsidiaries also write a modest amount of reinsurance business on an assumed basis, which is included in the insurance segment.

The market for specialty insurance coverages differs significantly from the market for standard insurance coverages. The specialty market provides coverage for hard-to-place risks that generally do not fit the underwriting criteria of the standard market, which provides coverage for largely uniform and relatively predictable exposures and is highly regulated with respect to rates and forms.

RSUI’s operating subsidiaries write specialty business on both an admitted and non-admitted basis. Admitted insurers are authorized to market, sell and service insurance policies in the states where they are licensed. Admitted insurers are generally required to obtain regulatory approval of their policy forms and premium rates. Non-admitted insurance markets have developed to provide insurance that is otherwise unavailable from a state’s admitted insurance markets. Non-admitted insurance is procured by either state-licensed surplus lines brokers who place risks with insurers not licensed in that state or by insureds’ direct procurement from non-admitted insurers. Non-admitted insurance is subject to considerably less regulation with respect to premium rates and forms. RSUI writes admitted specialty business primarily through RIC, a New Hampshire-domiciled insurer, licensed in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Specialty business written by RIC is subject to state policy form and premium rate regulations. Most of the risks in the admitted specialty market are unique and hard-to-place in the standard market. However, rather than looking to the non-admitted market, certain policyholders procure such specialty coverage from an admitted insurance company based on regulatory and/or marketing concerns. As an admitted carrier, RIC is subject to more state regulation than a non-admitted carrier, particularly with regard to rate and form filing requirements, restrictions on the ability to exit lines of business, premium tax payments and membership in various state associations, such as state guaranty funds and assigned risk plans.

RSUI writes business on a surplus lines eligible, non-admitted basis primarily through Landmark, a New Hampshire-domiciled insurer. As a surplus lines eligible, non-admitted insurance company, Landmark is not subject to state policy form and premium rate regulations and thus has more flexibility in setting rates and coverages for specialized or hard-to-place risks. This typically results in policies with higher premiums and more restrictive coverage provisions than coverages written by a standard insurance company. As of December 31, 2021, Landmark was approved to write business on a non-admitted basis in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.

Covington, a New Hampshire-domiciled insurer, was formed in September 2007 to, among other things, issue surplus lines policies written by RSUI. Through RSUI’s binding authority department, Covington writes small, specialized coverages pursuant to underwriting authority arrangements with managing general agents.

Pursuant to quota share arrangements in place since 2009, Landmark and Covington cede 90 percent of all their respective premiums and losses, gross of third-party reinsurance, to RIC.

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As of December 31, 2021, the statutory surplus of RIC was approximately $1.9 billion, the statutory surplus of Landmark was approximately $158 million, the statutory surplus of Covington was approximately $52 million, each as determined in accordance with SAP, and the consolidated equity of RSUI was $1.9 billion, as determined in accordance with GAAP.

Distribution. As of December 31, 2021, RSUI conducted its insurance business through approximately 100 independent wholesale insurance brokers located throughout the U.S. and 20 managing general agents. RSUI’s wholesale brokers are appointed based on management’s appraisal of expertise, premium production potential, loss history with other insurance companies that they represent and the size and experience of the agency. A wholesale broker’s operations are appointed to distribute RSUI’s products on a location by location basis. Producer agreements which stipulate premium collection, payment terms and commission arrangements are in place with each wholesale broker. No wholesale broker holds underwriting, claims or reinsurance authority for RSUI. RSUI’s top five producing wholesale brokers accounted for approximately 84 percent of gross premiums written by RSUI in 2021. RSUI’s top two producing wholesale brokers, Ryan Specialty Group and AmWINS Group, Inc., accounted for, in the aggregate, approximately 51 percent of RSUI’s gross premiums written in 2021. RSUI has entered into underwriting authority arrangements with 20 managing general agents for small, specialized coverages.

Underwriting. RSUI’s underwriting philosophy is based on handling only product lines in which its underwriters have underwriting expertise. RSUI generally focuses on higher severity, lower frequency specialty risks that can be effectively “desk underwritten” without the need for inspection or engineering reviews. RSUI tracks underwriting results for each of its underwriters and believes that the underwriting systems and applications it has in place facilitate efficient underwriting and high productivity levels. Underwriting authority is delegated on a “top-down” basis ultimately to individual underwriters based on experience and expertise. This authority is in writing and addresses maximum limits, excluded classes and coverages and premium size referral. Referral to a product line manager is required for risks exceeding an underwriter’s authority.

Ratings. RIC, Landmark and Covington are each rated A+ (Superior) by A.M. Best and all three companies are rated “A+” by S&P. RIC and Landmark are rated A2 by Moody’s.

CapSpecialty

General. CapSpecialty, primarily through its wholly-owned subsidiaries Capitol Indemnity Corporation, or “CIC,” Capitol Specialty Insurance Corporation, or “CSIC,” and Platte River Insurance Company, or “Platte River,” operates in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Through October 1, 2019, CapSpecialty also included the operations and results of Professional Risk Management Services, Inc., which was acquired from TransRe in 2014 and resold to TransRe effective October 1, 2019.

CIC conducts its property and casualty insurance business on an admitted basis throughout the U.S. CIC also writes surety products such as commercial surety bonds and contract surety bonds on a national basis. Commercial surety bonds include all surety bonds other than contract surety bonds and cover obligations typically required by law or regulation, such as licenses and permits. CIC offers contract surety bonds in the non-construction segment of the market which secure performance under supply, service and maintenance contracts.

CSIC conducts all of its business on an authorized, non-admitted basis nationally and writes primarily specialty lines of property and casualty insurance, including the professional lines of business.

Platte River is licensed in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and operates in conjunction with CIC, primarily providing surety products and offering pricing flexibility in those jurisdictions where both CIC and Platte River are licensed.

AIHL Re and CapSpecialty entered into an intercompany reinsurance contract, effective July 1, 2015, pursuant to which AIHL Re provides CapSpecialty with coverage primarily for adverse development on certain net loss and allocated loss adjustment expenses, or “LAE,” in excess of its carried reserves at June 30, 2015. AIHL Re’s commitments are intended to cover the statutory collateral requirements at CapSpecialty, if and when necessary, and AIHL Re’s obligations are subject to an aggregate limit of $50.0 million. See Note 5(e) to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for additional information on the intercompany reinsurance contract.

As of December 31, 2021, the statutory surplus of CIC was approximately $302 million, which included the statutory surplus of CSIC of approximately $64 million and the statutory surplus of Platte River of approximately $58 million, each as determined in accordance with SAP. As of December 31, 2021, the consolidated equity of CapSpecialty was $423 million, as determined in accordance with GAAP.

Distribution. CapSpecialty conducts its insurance business through independent wholesale brokerage and retail agents and general insurance agents located throughout the U.S. As of December 31, 2021, CapSpecialty had 62 general agents licensed to write property and casualty and surety coverages, approximately 121 brokers specializing in professional liability coverages and approximately 249 independent agents licensed to write surety coverages only. Certain independent agents have binding authority for specific business owner policy products, including property and liability coverages and non-contract surety products.

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Underwriting. Elements of CapSpecialty’s underwriting process include prudent risk selection, appropriate pricing and coverage customization. All accounts are reviewed on an individual basis to determine underwriting acceptability. CapSpecialty is a subscriber to the Insurance Service Organization, or “ISO,” and the Surety and Fidelity Association of America, or “SFAA,” insurance reference resources recognized by the insurance industry. CapSpecialty’s underwriting procedures, rates and contractual coverage obligations are based on procedures and data developed by ISO for property and casualty lines and by SFAA for surety lines. Underwriting acceptability is determined by type of business, claims experience, length of time in business and business experience, age and condition of premises occupied and financial stability. Information is obtained from, among other sources, agent applications, financial reports and on-site loss control surveys. If an account does not meet pre-determined acceptability parameters, coverage is declined. If an in-force policy becomes unprofitable due to extraordinary claims activity or inadequate premium levels, a non-renewal notice is issued in accordance with individual state statutes and rules.

Ratings. CIC, CSIC and Platte River are rated A (Excellent) by A.M. Best.

Alleghany Capital Segment

We own and support a diverse portfolio of non-financial businesses through Alleghany Capital. Alleghany Capital’s businesses include:

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Alleghany Capital’s subsidiaries report the sales of goods and services as product and service revenues. See Note 1(p) to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for a discussion of our product and service revenues and related accounting policies. Alleghany Capital product and service revenues for 2021 were approximately $3.7 billion, with W&W|AFCO Steel, IPS and Jazwares accounting for the majority of such revenues.

2021 Alleghany Capital Product and Service Revenues

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Corporate Activities

At the Alleghany parent company-level, we seek out attractive investment opportunities, including strategic investments in operating companies, delegate responsibilities to competent and motivated managers at the operating business-level, set goals for our operating businesses, assist managers in the achievement of these goals, define risk parameters and appropriate incentives for our operating businesses and monitor progress against their long-term objectives.

We own certain holding company investments and wholly-owned subsidiaries, including:

Prior to its sale on December 31, 2020, we also owned SORC. In June 2011, we formed SORC, an exploration and production company focused on enhanced oil recovery, headquartered in Golden, Colorado. From formation through December 31, 2020, we invested approximately $276 million in SORC. In the first half of 2020, SORC’s oil field assets were written down to estimated fair value, which primarily reflected a significant decline in oil prices, less costs to sell. In the second half of 2020, SORC’s oil field assets were sold at values that approximated their reduced carrying values.

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Catastrophe Risk Management

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are exposed to natural catastrophe events, such as hurricanes, other windstorms, floods, wildfires and earthquakes, and man-made catastrophe events such as a major terrorist event, the bankruptcy of a major company or a marine or an aviation disaster. In 2020, we also incurred significant amounts of catastrophe losses arising from the COVID-19 global pandemic, or the “Pandemic.” These natural or man-made catastrophe events may expose our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries to underwriting losses across multiple lines of business and, in any given year, could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations, cash flows and liquidity. The extent of losses caused by catastrophes is a function of the amount and type of insured exposure in the area affected by the event, as well as the severity of the event, potentially mitigated by any reinsurance coverage purchased by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries take certain measures to mitigate the impact of catastrophe events, including considering catastrophe risks in their underwriting and pricing decisions, monitoring and modeling accumulated exposures and managing exposure in key geographic zones and product lines that are prone to catastrophe events. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries also use reinsurance to further limit their exposure to catastrophes, as is discussed in more detail under “Reinsurance Protection” below.

We assess the probability of occurrence and severity of catastrophe events through the use of industry recognized models and other techniques. Where appropriate, we supplement these models with our own assessment of exposures which, in our view, may not be appropriately captured by these models. In addition, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries use modeled loss scenarios and internal analyses to set risk retention levels and help structure their reinsurance programs in an effort to ensure that single zone and aggregate catastrophe exposures conform to established subsidiary and group-level risk tolerances and fit within the existing exposure portfolio. We also leverage extensive multi-decade coverage and claims data gathered from our operations along with historical catastrophic event information and industry-recognized models to establish an appropriate price for insuring against future catastrophic events commensurate with the nature of such risks.

We consider how climate change may be changing the nature of storms as well as the frequency and potential severity. Our loss estimates for zonal and aggregate catastrophe exposures are updated and reviewed against tolerances as part of our risk oversight processes on a quarterly basis. Risk tolerances are subject to change based on our view of the risk-return characteristics of business being underwritten.

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries manage exposure to climate-related risks they underwrite in the following ways: (i) virtually all of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries’ insurance contracts that are exposed to natural catastrophes have contractual limits which cap their exposure to more severe than expected loss events; (ii) aggregations of risk are also closely monitored by region and peril, and we manage these aggregations by using traditional reinsurance or through the capital markets; (iii) contracts typically renew on an annual basis which allows our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries to increase prices to reflect the changing risk environment, or exit contracts where adequate pricing cannot be achieved; and (iv) our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries hold substantial conservatively invested assets, which allow our subsidiaries to respond quickly to claims following severe loss events while still continuing to provide insurance coverage to their clients.

There is no single standard methodology or set of industry standard assumptions to project possible losses related to catastrophe exposures and the form and quality of the data obtained, including data obtained from insureds and ceding companies, and used in these models are not uniformly compatible with the data requirements of all models. Therefore, the use of different methodologies and assumptions could materially change the projected losses. Finally, these modeled losses may not be comparable with estimates made by other companies.

Reinsurance Protection

General

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries reinsure portions of the risks they underwrite in order to reduce the effect of individual or aggregate exposure to losses, manage capacity, protect capital resources, reduce volatility in specific lines of business, improve risk-adjusted portfolio returns and enable them to increase gross premium writings and risk-capacity without requiring additional capital. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries generally purchase reinsurance and retrocessional coverages from highly-rated third-party reinsurers or on a collateralized basis. If the assuming reinsurers are unable or unwilling to meet the obligations assumed under the applicable reinsurance agreements, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries would remain liable for such reinsurance portion not paid by these reinsurers. As such, funds, trust agreements and letters of credit are held to collateralize a portion of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries’ reinsurance recoverables, and our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries reinsure portions of the risks they underwrite or assume with multiple reinsurance programs. A summary of the more significant programs follows.

TransRe enters into various retrocession arrangements, including property catastrophe retrocession contracts, to manage the effects of individual or aggregate exposure to losses, reduce volatility in specific lines of business, improve risk-adjusted

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portfolio returns, strengthen its market position and enhance capital efficiency. These include excess-of-loss and quota share treaties in both traditional rated and collateralized form, as well as catastrophe bonds. TransRe’s retrocession protections generally have a one-year term and renewal dates occur throughout the year, with the majority renewing at January 1. The catastrophe bonds, however, have a four-year term, with maturities in 2022 and 2023.

RSUI reinsures its property lines of business through a program consisting of surplus share treaties, facultative placements and per risk and catastrophe excess of loss treaties. RSUI’s catastrophe reinsurance program and property per risk reinsurance program each run on an annual basis from May 1 to the following April 30 and portions expired on April 30, 2021. Both programs were renewed on May 1, 2021 with substantially similar terms as the expired programs. RSUI reinsures certain portions of its casualty lines of business utilizing various quota share treaties and facultative placements.

Terrorism Act

With respect to potential losses arising from acts of terrorism, the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002, as extended and amended, most recently by the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015, which we collectively refer to as the “Terrorism Act,” established a program to provide federal assistance to the insurance industry in order to meet the needs of commercial insurance policyholders for coverages against losses due to certain acts of terrorism. The Terrorism Act fixes the insurer deductible at 20 percent of an insurer’s direct earned premium of the preceding calendar year. The Terrorism Act also initially fixed the federal share of compensation at 85 percent of insured losses that exceed insurer deductibles. As provided in the Terrorism Act, beginning on January 1, 2016, the federal share began to decrease by 1 percentage point per calendar year and it decreased on that basis until the federal share was equal to 80 percent as of January 1, 2020. On December 20, 2019, President Trump signed into law a seven-year extension of the Terrorism Act continuing through December 31, 2027. The Terrorism Act is administered by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury.

The Terrorism Act applies to foreign or domestic acts of terrorism occurring within the U.S. (including in the U.S. territorial sea and the Outer Continental Shelf), at U.S. missions abroad or on U.S. flag vessels or aircraft. In return for requiring insurers writing certain lines of property and casualty insurance to offer coverage to commercial insurance policyholders against specified acts of terrorism, the Terrorism Act requires the U.S. federal government to reimburse such insurers for the federal share (80 percent, as of January 1, 2020) of insured losses during a program year resulting from such acts of terrorism above a statutorily-defined deductible. In addition, federal reimbursement will only be paid under the Terrorism Act if the aggregate industry insured losses resulting from a covered act of terrorism exceed $200.0 million for insured losses occurring in 2020 and for calendar years thereafter, but no payment will be made for any portion of aggregate industry insured losses that exceeds $100.0 billion during a particular calendar year.

In general, TransRe does not provide coverage for certified acts of terrorism, as defined by the Terrorism Act, but it is nonetheless exposed to potential losses related to both certified and uncertified acts of terrorism in the U.S. or elsewhere, such as from terrorism-specific treaty coverages offered to ceding companies or terrorism risk pools outside of the U.S. on a limited basis, and with respect to other lines of business from the assumption of terrorism risk in marine, aviation and other casualty treaties. Although TransRe assumes such terrorism risk after careful underwriting consideration and, in many cases, with limitations, a major terrorist event could have a material adverse impact on TransRe and us.

Approximately 16 percent of all policies and approximately 8 percent of property policies written by RSUI in 2021 contained coverage for domestic and foreign acts of terrorism. RSUI uses various underwriting strategies to mitigate its exposure to terrorism losses. In addition, its casualty reinsurance programs provide coverage for domestic and foreign acts of terrorism. RSUI’s property reinsurance programs provide coverage only for domestic acts of terrorism and, as a result, RSUI is liable for losses under property policies that provide coverage for foreign acts of terrorism, subject to potential Terrorism Act reimbursement.

Reinsurance Security Committee

We have established a Reinsurance Security Committee, which includes certain of our officers and the chief financial officers (or their designees) of each of TransRe, RSUI and CapSpecialty. The Reinsurance Security Committee meets to track, analyze and manage the use of reinsurance by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. The Reinsurance Security Committee also considers and oversees the limits on the maximum amount of unsecured reinsurance recoverables that should be outstanding from any particular reinsurer, the lines of business that should be ceded to a particular reinsurer and, where applicable, the types of collateral that should be posted by a reinsurer. As of December 31, 2021, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries had total reinsurance recoverables of $2,196.0 million, consisting of $2,026.1 million of ceded outstanding loss and LAE and $173.1 million of recoverables on paid losses, less $3.2 million allowance for credit losses. The reinsurance purchased by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries does not relieve them from their obligations to their policyholders and cedants and, therefore, the financial strength of their reinsurers is important. Approximately 66 percent of our reinsurance recoverables balance as of December 31, 2021 was due from reinsurers having an A.M. Best financial strength rating of A (Excellent) or higher, with a majority of the other reinsurance recoverables being secured by funds held, trust agreements or letters of credit. As of December 31, 2021, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries had an allowance for credit losses of $3.2 million. Information

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related to concentration of reinsurance recoverables can be found in Note 5(b) to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K. Information regarding the risks faced by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries with respect to their use of reinsurance can be found on page 51 of this Form 10-K.

Competition

The reinsurance and insurance industry is highly competitive, and industry consolidation has created an even more competitive business environment. Competition in the businesses of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries is based on many factors, including the perceived financial strength of the company, premiums charged, other terms and conditions offered, services provided, commissions paid to producers, ratings assigned by independent rating agencies, speed of claims payment and reputation and experience in the lines of business to be written.

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries compete with a large number of major U.S. and non-U.S. reinsurers and insurers in their selected lines of business, including regional companies, mutual companies, specialty insurance companies, underwriting agencies, government-owned or subsidized facilities, European underwriting syndicates and diversified financial services companies. In our reinsurance segment, TransRe’s property and casualty businesses compete on a worldwide basis. In our insurance segment, RSUI’s property and casualty businesses, and CapSpecialty’s admitted casualty businesses and surety and non-admitted specialty businesses, compete on a national basis. Some of these competitors have significantly more premiums, capital and resources than our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries.

In addition to competition from the reinsurance industry, TransRe faces competition from the capital markets, as well as some traditional reinsurers, which from time to time produce alternative products or reinsurance vehicles (such as collateralized reinsurance, reinsurance securitizations, catastrophe bonds and various derivatives, such as swaps and sidecars) that may compete with certain types of reinsurance, such as property catastrophe. Hedge funds also provide reinsurance and retrocessional protections through captive companies or other alternative transactions on a fully collateralized basis for property and energy catastrophe business. Over time, these initiatives could significantly affect supply, pricing and competition in the reinsurance industry. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries may also compete with new entrants into the reinsurance and insurance markets, including companies with new or “disruptive” technologies or business models.

A discussion of the risks faced by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries due to competition within, and the cyclicality of, the reinsurance and insurance businesses can be found on page 50 of this Form 10-K.

The various industries in which Alleghany Capital’s subsidiaries operate are highly competitive, though the nature and degree of such competition varies greatly by company and industry. Competition is based on many factors, including the perceived financial strength, expertise and reputation of the company, the quality and timeliness of the goods and services being provided, prices charged for goods and services and other contractual terms and conditions associated with the sale of goods and services.

Human Capital

Alleghany Parent. Alleghany’s focus on creating long-term value for all of Alleghany’s stakeholders, including our employees, informs our culture, strategy and compensation. The Alleghany parent company comprises a small group of highly-experienced professionals and additional support staff. In general, our professionals have all been recruited mid-career, and we benefit from the accumulated expertise they have achieved before coming to Alleghany. From a culture perspective, although we must offer competitive compensation, we do not seek to compete for executive talent solely on the basis of compensation. We also compete by offering a unique professional opportunity to work in a high-integrity environment where the focus is on building stockholder value over the very long term. Our collaborative, team-oriented culture is a key driver of retention. Our retention efforts, which include compensation aspects, result in parent-level employees with long tenures, which fits with our long-term financial results orientation.

Subsidiary Level. Given the small number of parent-level executives and employees, Alleghany’s subsidiaries employ over 99% of our consolidated employees. Alleghany Capital’s subsidiaries have employees across a diverse group of businesses and sectors, including: (i) hotel services (Concord); (ii) manufacturing (W&W|AFCO Steel, Wilbert, Kentucky Trailer, Piedmont and PCT); (iii) engineering and related consulting services (IPS); and (iv) product design, development and marketing (Jazwares).

As shown in the charts on page 37 of this form 10-K, most of the employees at our Alleghany Capital subsidiaries are involved in manufacturing or hotel services. Concord, which has the most employees of any of our subsidiaries, has a strong reputation as one of the most employee-centric businesses in the hotel services sector, and has a number of initiatives that aim to build on its reputation.

Safety. The safety of all of our employees is our highest priority. Across our organization, we are committed to conducting business in a manner that protects the health, safety and security of our employees. Given our intense focus on safety, each board meeting of an Alleghany Capital subsidiary starts with a report on key safety statistics. Among the safety-related statistics that we monitor is the “Days Away Restricted or Transferred” rate, or “DART,” as promulgated by the Occupational Safety and Health

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Administration, or “OSHA.” When expressed as the rate of incidents per 100 full-time equivalent employees at the Alleghany Capital subsidiary, DART incidents ranged across subsidiaries from 0.1 to 3.7 for 2021. As of December 31, 2021, the majority of our DART metrics at Alleghany Capital’s subsidiaries for the trailing 12 months were determined to be lower than their most relevant industry benchmark, as published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

To ensure that our employees remain safe from the Pandemic, commencing in 2020, we undertook and continue to undertake extensive measures. For all of our offices, hotels, factories and other facilities, we have taken and continue to take a number of steps to enhance the safety of the physical environment and reduce the risk of infection to our employees, including but not limited to:

We are also committed to a work environment that is free of threats, intimidation and physical harm. We provide our subsidiaries with access to training resources on handling complaints and investigations, and preventing workplace violence and bullying.

Diversity and Inclusion. We believe diversity and inclusion is an integral part of achieving our business and financial objectives by helping create a high performing and resilient culture. We strive to be an organization that shares common values and goals, while at the same time respecting the broad differences among us. We prohibit discrimination by or against any person on the basis of race, color, national origin, ancestry, citizenship status, creed, religion, religious affiliation, age, sex, pregnancy, maternity, caring responsibility, marital status, civil partnership status, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, genetic information, disability, veteran status, or any other status that is protected under applicable law. In accordance with our Employee Code of Business Conduct and Ethics, which applies to all of our employees from senior executives to entry-level employees, we are committed to a workplace that is free from discrimination or harassment of any kind and prohibit all such conduct. We recruit, select, train, promote and compensate based on merit, experience and other work-related criteria. We comply with all laws governing fair employment and labor practices.

We have made an effort in recent years to have a more diverse employee base. In 2020, we engaged a global consulting firm with expertise in issues of diversity and inclusion, and with their guidance in 2021 we hired our first Vice President-People and Inclusion Officer within the Alleghany management team to drive our strategy around people and inclusion. We continue to collect and analyze more detailed demographic data across the organization with a view to monitor the success of our diversity and inclusion efforts.

We also support the objective of a diverse board of directors and have continued to enhance the diversity of the board composition in 2021. As of December 31, 2021, one-third of our board of directors was female and one-third of our board of directors was ethnically diverse.

Talent Acquisition, Development, and Retention. Hiring, developing and retaining employees is important to our operations, and we are focused on creating experiences and programs that foster growth, performance and retention. We prioritize the continued professional and personal development of our employees through formal programs and events, support of continuing education, and on-the-job learning and knowledge-sharing. We believe our investment in training and development support contributes to an increased level of job satisfaction and retention as employees feel more empowered to perform their job functions. Internal mentoring and coaching is at the heart of the learning and development approach at our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. Our subsidiaries capitalize on the skills, talents, and knowledge of their employees by facilitating frequent information sharing across different functions and teams within each organization. This is further supplemented by more formal training and developmental programs.

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Employee Count. As of December 31, 2021, we had 13,313 employees, as presented below, compared with 10,407 as of December 31, 2020. The vast majority of our employees are located in the U.S. The increase in our employees as of December 31, 2021 relates primarily to the continued recovery in 2021 from the Pandemic-driven reductions in staffing that Concord experienced in 2020, as well as the impact of IPS’s acquisition of Linesight and the addition of Piedmont, as noted previously. Our total annualized revenue per employee was approximately $0.9 million as of December 31, 2021 and 2020.

As of December 31, 2021, Alleghany Capital and its subsidiaries had 11,926 employees, as presented below.

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Regulation

General

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are subject to extensive supervision and regulation in the jurisdictions in which they operate and are required to comply with a wide range of laws and regulations applicable to reinsurance and insurance companies, although the degree and type of regulation varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. We expect the scope and extent of regulation globally, as well as regulatory oversight generally, to continue to increase. The material regulations under which we operate are described below.

U.S. Regulation

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are regulated in all U.S. jurisdictions in which they are licensed to conduct business. The extent of this regulation varies, but state insurance laws and regulations generally govern the financial condition of reinsurers and insurers, including standards of solvency, types and concentrations of permissible investments, establishment and maintenance of reserves, credit for reinsurance and requirements of capital adequacy. In addition, state insurance laws and regulations govern the business conduct of insurers, including marketing and sales practices and claims handling and require the approval of nearly all rates, policy forms and related materials for lines of insurance. U.S. insurance regulation generally aims to protect policyholders and to ensure that insurance companies remain solvent.

Insurance Holding Company Regulation. As an insurance holding company, we and our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are subject to regulation under the insurance holding company laws enacted in those states where our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled or where they conduct business. These laws generally require insurance companies controlled by a holding company to register and file with their domestic insurance regulators information concerning their capital structure, ownership, financial condition, certain intercompany transactions, including dividends and distributions and general business operations.

The insurance holding company laws of some states, including with respect to the payment of dividends and distributions, may be more restrictive than the insurance holding company laws of other states. Under these laws, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries may not pay an “extraordinary” dividend or distribution without the prior approval of the domestic state insurance regulators. The insurance laws of New York, Wisconsin and New Hampshire, which represent some of our domiciliary states, utilize a more restrictive “lesser than” calculation for determining whether a distribution constitutes an extraordinary dividend, thereby requiring prior regulatory approval. In New York, for instance, an extraordinary dividend means a dividend which, together with all dividends declared during the preceding twelve months, exceeds the lesser of 10 percent of the insurer’s surplus to policyholders as shown by its latest filed statement, or 100 percent of adjusted net investment income during such period. In contrast, the insurance laws of other states, such as Delaware and Nebraska, where certain of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled, utilize a less restrictive “greater than” test for extraordinary dividend calculations. In Delaware, for example, an extraordinary dividend includes any dividend, together with other dividends made within the preceding 12 months, that exceeds the greater of: (i) 10 percent of such insurer’s surplus as regards to policyholders as of the preceding year end; or (ii) the net income, excluding realized capital gains, for the twelve-month period ending the preceding year end. In addition, certain states where Alleghany’s reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled prohibit a domestic insurance company from paying ordinary and extraordinary dividends except out of earned surplus.

In addition, insurance holding company laws and regulations to which we and our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are subject generally require prior notification and approval or non-disapproval by the domiciliary insurance regulators of certain other significant transactions, including sales, loans, reinsurance agreements and service agreements between an insurance subsidiary, on the one hand, and its holding company or other subsidiaries of the holding company, on the other hand.

Insurance holding company laws and regulations to which we and our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are subject also generally require the ultimate controlling person of the reinsurer or insurer to comply with certain informational requirements with the purpose of protecting such reinsurer or insurer from enterprise risk, including requiring the ultimate controlling person to file with the group’s lead state insurance regulator an annual enterprise risk report (also known as a Form F) that identifies the risks within the insurance holding company system that could have a material impact on the financial condition or liquidity of the reinsurer or insurer or the entire insurance holding company system.

The insurance holding company laws and regulations of the states in which our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled also generally require that, before a person can acquire direct or indirect control of a reinsurer or an insurer domiciled in the state (or any person controlling such domestic reinsurer or insurer), prior written approval must be obtained from the insurer’s domiciliary state insurance regulator. In determining whether to approve a person’s direct or indirect acquisition of control over an insurance company, the state insurance regulators are required to consider various factors, including the financial strength of the acquirer, the integrity and management experience of the acquirer’s board of directors and executive officers and the acquirer’s plans for the future operations of the reinsurer or insurer. Pursuant to applicable laws and regulations, “control” over a reinsurer or an insurer is generally presumed to exist if any person, directly or indirectly, owns, controls, holds the power

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to vote or holds proxies representing 10 percent or more of the voting securities of that reinsurer or insurer. Indirect ownership includes ownership of the shares of the ultimate controlling person’s common stock.

The acquisition of control laws described above may discourage potential acquisition proposals and may delay, deter or prevent an acquisition of control of us, including through transactions, and in particular unsolicited transactions, that some or all of our stockholders might consider to be desirable.

Risk Management. All U.S. states have enacted the Risk Management and Own Risk and Solvency Assessment, or "ORSA," Act, which requires reinsurers and insurers that exceed certain specified premium thresholds to maintain a framework for managing the risks associated with their entire holding company group, including non-insurance companies. These laws also require that, at least annually, the reinsurer or insurer must prepare a summary report, or the “ORSA Report,” regarding its internal assessment of risk management and capital adequacy for the entire holding company group. The ORSA Report is filed, on a confidential basis, with the insurance holding company group’s lead state regulator and made available to other domiciliary regulators within the holding company group.

Corporate Governance. The Corporate Governance Annual Disclosure Model Act has also been adopted by all U.S. states. It requires reinsurers and insurers to disclose detailed information regarding their governance practices.

Group Supervision and Group Capital. In response to international developments, state insurance holding company laws have established procedures for the supervision of domestic and international insurance groups, including those groups with both insurance and non-insurance entities. These laws authorize U.S. regulators to lead or participate in the group-wide supervision of certain international insurance groups.

Additionally, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners, or the "NAIC," has adopted a group capital calculation tool using a risk-based capital, or “RBC,” aggregation methodology, or “AM,” for all entities in an insurance holding company system. The goal is to provide U.S. regulators with a method to aggregate the available capital and the minimum capital of each entity in a group in a way that applies to all companies regardless of their structure. The NAIC adopted the group capital calculation methodology and amendments to the Model Insurance Holding Company System Regulatory Act which implement the annual filing requirement for the group capital calculation. These amendments have to be adopted by state legislatures to become effective, including in the states where our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled. The International Association of Insurance Supervisors, or "IAIS," will evaluate the AM for comparability to the insurance capital standard that the IAIS is developing as part of its Common Framework for the Supervision of Internationally Active Insurance Groups and the Holistic Framework, as discussed below under “International Regulation – Legislative and Regulatory Initiatives.” The outcome of this comparability determination may impact our international operations and the overall competitiveness of the U.S. domestic (re)insurance industry.

Pandemic Risk. There has been no formal action with respect to reinsurance and insurance coverage of Pandemic risk at the NAIC or at the federal level in the U.S. In 2020, many government agencies and insurance regulators issued regulations, bulletins and directives in connection with the Pandemic, including states where our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries have business operations or conduct reinsurance and insurance business. Our insurance subsidiaries were also required to provide additional reporting and assist policyholders, such as by providing premium reductions as warranted, although these requirements are no longer in effect. Also in 2020, several states proposed mandating retroactive coverage of Pandemic related business interruption losses. To date however, none of these proposals has meaningfully progressed or been enacted. At the federal level, there are ongoing discussions around a federal response to the risk of future pandemics, some of which include proposals to create public-private partnerships with insurers. It is too early to determine which proposal may ultimately gain the support of Congress, if any, and how any new legislation might affect our business operations.

Cybersecurity. The NAIC has adopted the Insurance Data Security Model Law, which, when adopted by the states, will require insurers, insurance producers and other entities required to be licensed under state insurance laws to comply with certain requirements under such laws, such as developing and maintaining a written information security program, conducting risk assessments and overseeing the data security practices of third-party vendors. The Insurance Data Security Model Law has been adopted by several states, including some of the states where our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled. In addition, certain states are developing or have developed regulations that may impose regulatory requirements related to cybersecurity on reinsurance and insurance companies (potentially including reinsurance and insurance companies that are not domiciled, but are licensed, in the relevant state). For example, the New York State Department of Financial Services, or the “NYDFS,” adopted a regulation requiring banking and insurance entities under its jurisdiction to implement reasonable cybersecurity measures, effective as of March 1, 2017, the "NYDFS Cybersecurity Regulation," which applies to our insurance and reinsurance subsidiaries that are domiciled or licensed in New York. We are also subject to the cybersecurity provisions of the California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018, or “CCPA.” The CCPA includes a broad private right of action in the case of the breach of California consumers’ personal data stemming from a company’s failure to implement reasonable security measures. The potential risk with respect to CCPA may be limited by the scope of the law, which excludes data subject to the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, or “GLBA.” However, this is not an entity-wide exception and a breach of personal information subject to the CCPA and not covered by the GLBA could be a significant source of liability risk. We are subject to regulations promulgated

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under the GLBA, including the Standards for Safeguarding Customer Information Rule, or “Safeguards Rule.” The Federal Trade Commission, or the "FTC," announced significant amendments to the Safeguards Rule in 2021 to require covered financial institutions to implement specific data security measures in their information security programs. Failure to comply with the amended Safeguards Rule when it comes fully into effect in October 2022 may result in enforcement action, which represents a potential future liability risk.

Rates and Policy Forms. The policy forms and various premium rates and rates for property or casualty or surety insurance policies of our insurance subsidiaries are subject to regulation in every state in which they conduct business. In many states, rates and policy forms must be filed with the applicable insurance regulator prior to their use, and in some states, rates and forms must be affirmatively approved by the applicable insurance regulator prior to use.

The rates and coverage terms of reinsurance agreements with non-affiliates are generally not subject to regulation by any governmental authority. As a practical matter, however, the rates charged by primary insurers and the policy terms of primary insurance agreements may affect the rates charged and the policy terms under associated reinsurance agreements.

Market Conduct Examinations. The insurance laws and regulations to which our insurance companies are subject govern their marketplace activities, affecting the form and content of disclosure to consumers, product illustrations, advertising, product replacement, sales and underwriting practices and complaint and claims handling. These provisions are generally enforced through periodic market conduct examinations. Such insurance laws and regulations also govern the licensing of insurance companies and agents and regulate trade practices.

Periodic Financial Reporting and Risk-Based Capital. Reinsurance and insurance companies in the U.S. are required to report their financial condition and results of operations in accordance with SAP prescribed or permitted by state insurance regulators in conjunction with the NAIC. State insurance regulators also prescribe the form and content of statutory financial statements, perform periodic financial examinations of reinsurers and insurers, set minimum reserve and loss ratio requirements, establish standards for permissible types and amounts of investments and require minimum capital and surplus levels. These statutory capital and surplus requirements include RBC rules promulgated by the NAIC. These RBC standards are intended to assess the level of risk inherent in a reinsurance or an insurance company’s business and consider items such as asset risk, credit risk, underwriting risk and other business risks relevant to its operations. In accordance with RBC formulas, a company’s RBC requirements are calculated and compared with its total adjusted capital to determine whether the company may be undercapitalized and whether regulatory intervention is warranted. As of December 31, 2021, the total adjusted capital of our U.S. domiciled reinsurance and insurance companies exceeded the minimum levels required under applicable RBC rules, and each had excess capacity to write additional premiums in relation to these requirements. Specifically, as of December 31, 2021, the amount of statutory capital and surplus necessary to satisfy regulatory requirements was not significant in relation to the actual statutory capital and surplus of our reinsurance and insurance companies in the U.S.

The NAIC annually calculates certain statutory financial ratios for most reinsurance and insurance companies in the U.S. These calculations are known as the Insurance Regulatory Information System, or “IRIS,” ratios. There are thirteen IRIS ratios for property/casualty insurers, with each ratio having an established “usual range” of results. The IRIS ratios assist state insurance departments in executing their statutory mandate to oversee the financial condition of insurance companies. A ratio falling outside the usual range is not considered a failing result; rather, unusual values are viewed as part of the regulatory early monitoring system. Furthermore, in some years, it may not be unusual for financially sound companies to have several ratios with results outside the usual ranges. The NAIC reports the ratios to state insurance departments that may then contact a company if four or more of its ratios fall outside the NAIC’s usual ranges. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are not currently subject to regulatory scrutiny based on their respective IRIS ratios.

Guaranty Associations and Similar Arrangements. Certain U.S. insurance companies are required under the guaranty fund laws of most states in which they transact business to pay assessments up to certain prescribed limits to fund policyholder losses or liabilities of insolvent insurance companies. Our U.S. insurance companies are also required to participate in various involuntary pools, principally involving windstorms.

Statutory Accounting Principles. State insurance regulators have developed SAP as a basis of accounting used to monitor and regulate the solvency of reinsurers and insurers. SAP is primarily concerned with measuring a reinsurer’s or insurer’s surplus to policyholders. Accordingly, SAP focuses on valuing assets and liabilities of a reinsurer or insurer at financial reporting dates in accordance with applicable insurance laws and regulations in the state in which such reinsurer or insurer is domiciled. SAP determines, among other things, the amount of statutory surplus and statutory net income of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries and thus determines, in part, the amount of funds they have available to pay as dividends.

GAAP is concerned with a company’s solvency, but it is also concerned with other financial measurements, such as income and cash flows. Accordingly, GAAP gives more consideration to appropriate matching of revenue and expenses and accounting for management’s stewardship of assets than does SAP. Due to differences in methodology between SAP and GAAP, the values for assets, liabilities and equity reflected in financial statements prepared in accordance with GAAP are materially different from those reflected in financial statements prepared in accordance with SAP.

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Federal Legislative and Regulatory Initiatives. As discussed in more detail under “Reinsurance Protection” above, the Terrorism Act established a federal assistance program to help the commercial property and casualty insurance industry cover claims arising from terrorism-related losses and regulates the terms of insurance related to the terrorism coverage provided by our insurance companies.

The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, or the “Dodd-Frank Act,” made extensive changes to the laws regulating financial services firms and required various federal agencies to adopt a broad range of implementing rules and regulations.

The Dodd-Frank Act created the Financial Stability Oversight Council, or the “FSOC,” comprising the heads of federal agencies including the SEC, Comptroller of the Currency, U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve, to identify and respond to risks to the financial stability of the U.S. and to promote market discipline. The FSOC is authorized to designate a nonbank financial company as “systemically significant,” or a “non-bank SIFI,” if its material financial distress could threaten the financial stability of the U.S. A non-bank SIFI is subject to supervision by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System as well as enhanced prudential standards, including stress tests, liquidity requirements, annual resolution plans or “living wills,” and enhanced public disclosures. There are currently no such non-bank SIFIs designated by the FSOC.

The FSOC changed its process for designating non-bank SIFIs, effective in January 2020, by adopting an activities-based approach and moving away from the entities-based approach. This change of measures to address systemic risk in the insurance industry could affect our reinsurance and insurance operations as could a determination that we or our counterparties are systemically significant.

The Dodd-Frank Act also created the Federal Insurance Office, or the “FIO,” within the U.S. Department of the Treasury which is designed to promote national coordination within the insurance sector and which has the authority, in part, to monitor all aspects of the insurance industry, including identifying issues or gaps in the regulation of reinsurers and insurers that could contribute to a systemic crisis in the insurance industry or the U.S. financial system. The Dodd-Frank Act authorizes the FIO to assist the Secretary of the Treasury and the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative in negotiating “covered agreements” with foreign jurisdictions regarding prudential measures for the supervision of global reinsurance and insurance markets. A covered agreement may preempt a state law if the FIO determines that the state law is inconsistent with a covered agreement’s terms and treats a non-U.S. reinsurer or insurer less favorably than a U.S. reinsurer or insurer.

Covered Agreements and Credit for Reinsurance. Currently, our non-U.S. reinsurance companies are indirectly subject to the effects of regulatory requirements imposed by the states in which their U.S. ceding insurers are domiciled. Under current U.S. law, an insurer is permitted to take credit on its statutory financial statements for the loss, expense or reserve obligations of its reinsurers if the reinsurer is licensed, accredited or approved in the U.S. insurer’s state of domicile or if the reinsurer posts collateral for the sole benefit of the U.S. insurer equal to 100% of the reinsurer’s obligations. Additionally, all states permit a U.S. insurer to take credit for reinsurance ceded to a non-U.S. reinsurer that posts collateral in amounts less than 100% of the reinsurer’s obligations if the reinsurer has been designated as a “certified reinsurer” and is domiciled in a country recognized by the state and the NAIC as a “Qualified Jurisdiction.” The reduced percentage of full collateral applied to a certified reinsurer is based upon an assessment of the reinsurer and its financial ratings.

In January 2017, the Treasury Department and the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative announced their successful completion of negotiations of a covered agreement with the EU, the Bilateral Agreement Between the United States and European Union on Prudential Measures Regarding Insurance and Reinsurance, or the "U.S./ EU Covered Agreement," which was signed on September 22, 2017. The U.S./EU Covered Agreement addresses three areas of prudential insurance and reinsurance supervision: (i) group supervision; (ii) reinsurance; and (iii) the exchange of information between the U.S. and EU. The U.S./EU Covered Agreement eliminates the requirement for EU reinsurers to post reinsurance collateral in order for their U.S. ceding insurers to take credit for reinsurance. In order to be eligible for zero collateral treatment, an EU reinsurer must meet certain standards including, among others, minimum capital and solvency ratios, confirmation of financial condition by the reinsurer’s domestic regulator and claims payment standards. The U.S./EU Covered Agreement may preempt an inconsistent state law that treats EU reinsurers less favorably than a U.S. reinsurer. In addition, the U.S./EU Covered Agreement establishes group supervision practices that apply only to U.S. and EU insurance groups operating in both territories. For instance, the U.S./EU Covered Agreement provides that U.S. insurance groups with operations in the EU will be supervised at the worldwide level only by U.S. insurance regulators (and precludes EU insurance supervisors from exercising solvency and capital requirements over the worldwide operations of U.S. insurers for a sixty-month period), provided those U.S. regulators apply a group capital assessment calculating risk at the worldwide group level.

On December 20, 2018, in anticipation of the U.K.’s pending exit from the EU, the Treasury Department and the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative announced that they had signed an additional covered agreement with the U.K., the Bilateral Agreement Between the United States of America and the United Kingdom on Prudential Measures Regarding Insurance and Reinsurance, or the "U.S./U.K. Covered Agreement." The U.S./U.K. Covered Agreement largely reflects the provisions of the U.S./EU Covered Agreement and incorporates the same timeframes contained within it. We expect that, if successfully

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implemented, the U.S./U.K. Covered Agreement will resolve some of the regulatory uncertainty following Brexit (as defined below) for U.S. reinsurers writing business in the U.K., as well as U.K.-based reinsurers writing business in the U.S.

Under the terms of both the U.S./EU Covered Agreement and U.S./U.K. Covered Agreement, together, the "Covered Agreements," as of September 1, 2022, state credit for reinsurance laws that result in non-U.S. reinsurers subject to the Covered Agreements being treated less favorably than U.S. reinsurers may be preempted by the applicable covered agreement. Accordingly, on June 25, 2019, the NAIC adopted amendments to the NAIC’s Credit for Reinsurance Model Law and Model Regulation, or the "Credit for Reinsurance Models," to conform to the requirements of the Covered Agreements, which will become an NAIC accreditation standard as of September 1, 2022, with enforcement beginning on January 1, 2023. This has set the stage for each state to revise its credit for reinsurance laws in order to avoid federal preemption of its laws. As of October 27, 2021, 46 jurisdictions had adopted the amended Credit for Reinsurance Models.

The 2019 amendments to the Credit for Reinsurance Models afford zero reinsurance collateral treatment to qualifying reinsurers from "Reciprocal Jurisdictions" which include: (i) non-U.S. jurisdictions that entered into a covered agreement with the U.S. (currently the EU and the U.K.); (ii) non-U.S. jurisdictions that are Qualified Jurisdictions, as described above, and also comply with certain additional requirements consistent with the terms and conditions of in-force covered agreements, including the elimination of a requirement that a U.S.-domiciled reinsurer maintain a local presence in the Qualified Jurisdiction in order to assume reinsurance from a ceding insurer domiciled in the non-U.S. jurisdiction and recognize the U.S. statutory regulatory approach to group supervision; and (iii) all U.S. jurisdictions that are accredited by the NAIC. The NAIC has designated Bermuda, Japan and Switzerland as "Reciprocal Jurisdictions" and accordingly, qualifying reinsurers domiciled in these countries are eligible for zero collateral treatment under the NAIC Credit for Reinsurance Models. We cannot currently estimate the impact of changes to the laws and regulations as a consequence of any such adopted covered agreements on our business, financial condition or operating results.

Financial Risks Relating to Climate Change. The topic of climate risk has come under increased scrutiny by insurance regulators. In September 2020, the NYDFS issued a circular letter to New York domestic and foreign authorized insurers, which applies to certain of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries, stating that the NYDFS expects insurers to integrate financial risks related to climate change into their governance frameworks, risk management processes and business strategies.

In addition, the NYDFS issued final guidance on November 15, 2021 regarding its expectations for New York domestic insurers related to the management of financial risks from climate change, which guidance applies to TRC and Fair American Insurance and Reinsurance Company, or "FAIRCO." Insurers are expected to manage these risks by outlining actions that are proportionate to the nature, scale and complexity of their businesses. For instance, the guidance states that an insurer should: (i) incorporate climate risk into its financial risk management (e.g., including in its ORSA); (ii) manage climate risk through its enterprise risk management functions and ensure that its organizational structure clearly defines roles and responsibilities related to managing such risk; (iii) use scenario analysis when developing business strategies and identifying risks; and (iv) incorporate the management of climate risk into its corporate governance structure at the group or insurer entity level. In terms of timing, a company must have specific plans to implement the NYDFS’s expectations related to board governance and organizational structure by August 15, 2022, and the NYDFS will issue additional guidance on the timing for implementing the more complex expectations.

The NYDFS also adopted an amendment to the regulation that governs enterprise risk management, effective as of August 13, 2021, that requires an insurance group to include certain additional risks, such as climate change risk, in its enterprise risk management function. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries continue to monitor the climate change related guidance and expectations from the NYDFS. Adopting these and other related requirements from the NYDFS as well as forthcoming requirements from other insurance regulators could involve substantial additional resources and increased costs of compliance in future periods.

NYDFS Guidance on Diversity and Corporate Governance. Insurance regulators are also focused on the topic of race, diversity and inclusion. On March 16, 2021, the NYDFS issued a circular letter stating that it expects the insurers it regulates to make diversity of their leadership a business priority and a key element of their corporate governance.

International Regulation

General. TransRe is regulated in various foreign jurisdictions where it conducts business. In certain jurisdictions, TransRe operates through branches or representative offices of TRC and in other jurisdictions TransRe has local reinsurance or insurance subsidiaries, such as TRL in the U.K. and TRESA in Luxembourg.

The extent of the regulation varies by foreign jurisdiction, but generally governs licensing requirements, solvency, currency, amount and type of security deposits, amount and type of reserves and amount and type of local investments. International operations and assets held abroad may be materially and adversely affected by economic, political and other developments in foreign countries and the U.S., including possible changes in foreign and U.S. laws and regulations, nationalization and changes in regulatory policy, unexpected financial restrictions that foreign governments may impose and potential costs and difficulties in complying with a wide variety of foreign laws and regulations, as well as by the consequences of

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international hostilities and unrest. The risks of such occurrences and their overall effect upon us vary from country to country and cannot easily be predicted. International operations are also subject to risks related to complying, or monitoring compliance, with the requirements of anti-corruption laws, such as the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and the U.K. Bribery Act, and the economic and trade sanctions laws of the U.S., including but not limited to the regulations administered by the Office of Foreign Assets Control of the Treasury Department, or “OFAC,” and sanctions laws implemented by other countries in which TransRe operates. Further, regulations governing technical reserves and remittance of balances in some countries may hinder remittance of profits and repatriation of assets. A discussion of risks unique to international operations faced by TransRe’s offices that operate in jurisdictions outside the U.S. can be found on pages 53 through 55 of this Form 10-K.

The laws and regulations of a number of the foreign jurisdictions in which our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled, including the U.K., Luxembourg and Gibraltar, also generally require that, before a person can acquire direct or indirect control of a reinsurer or an insurer domiciled in that jurisdiction (or any person controlling such reinsurer or insurer), prior written approval must be obtained from the insurance regulator in that jurisdiction. In determining whether to approve a person’s direct or indirect acquisition of control over an insurance company, the insurance regulators are required to consider various factors, including the reputation and financial strength of the acquirer, the integrity and management experience of the acquirer’s board of directors and executive officers and the acquirer’s plans for the future operations of the reinsurer or insurer. Pursuant to applicable laws and regulations, “control” over a reinsurer or an insurer is generally presumed to exist if any person, directly or indirectly holds 10 percent or more of the shares or 10 percent or more of the voting power of that reinsurer or insurer, or shares or voting power which enables that person to exercise significant control over the management of the reinsurer or insurer. Indirect ownership includes ownership of the shares or voting power of the ultimate controlling person.

U.K. Regulation. Prior to December 2013, TransRe’s operations in the U.K. were only conducted through a branch of TRC. Since December 2013, TransRe’s operations in the U.K. have been conducted by both TRL and TRC’s branch in the U.K. TRL and TRC’s operations in the U.K. are supervised by the Prudential Regulatory Authority, or the “PRA,” which is responsible, among other things, for regulating the solvency of insurance and reinsurance companies, and the Financial Conduct Authority, or the “FCA,” which is responsible, among other things, for regulating market conduct. The PRA and the FCA have extensive powers to intervene in the affairs of a regulated entity, including the power to enforce and take disciplinary measures in respect of breaches of its rules by authorized firms and approved persons. TRL and TRC’s branch in the U.K. are each required to maintain a margin of solvency at all times in respect of the business conducted in accordance with PRA and FCA rules. The calculation of the margin of solvency depends on the type and amount of reinsurance business written, the type and amount of reserves held and other risk-related factors, including market risk, counterparty default risk and operational risk.

Luxembourg Regulation. TRESA is licensed to carry on reinsurance business in Luxembourg. As a result, TRESA is required to comply with The Law of 7 December 2015 on the Insurance Sector and the regulations and guidance issued by the Financial Supervisory Authority, or the “Commissariat aux Assurances.” Some of the significant aspects of the Luxembourg regulatory framework include complying with capital and solvency, corporate governance, risk management and internal control requirements. In addition, TRESA is subject to annual reporting requirements enacted by Commissariat aux Assurances.

Branch Regulation. TRC operates in a number of other jurisdictions through a series of foreign branches, including branches in Australia, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, the U.K., Switzerland and Singapore, and TRESA operates in Switzerland, Germany, France and Dubai through branches. As a result, TRC and TRESA are required, among other things, to meet local licensing, reserve, currency, investment and capital requirements as applicable for these branches.

Legislative and Regulatory Initiatives. Our reinsurance and insurance business throughout the EU is subject to an EU directive known as “Solvency II,” and its implementing rules, which have been in effect since January 1, 2016. The Solvency II regulatory regime is built on a risk-based approach to setting capital requirements for (re)insurers and seeks to: (i) enhance transparency and risk management; and (ii) encourage a proactive approach to company solvency. Certain aspects of Solvency II are likely to change in the near future. The European Commission, assisted by the provision of technical input from the European Insurance and Occupational Pension Authority or “EIOPA," has undertaken a review of Solvency II and on September 22, 2021 published a package of proposed legislative reforms for amending the existing regulatory framework. This proposed legislation is now being discussed by the European Parliament and Council.

TransRe could be materially impacted by the ultimate outcome of this review of Solvency II, which may reduce the regulatory solvency position of TRESA and/or the EU branch of TRC. For example, these entities could be impacted by increased capital requirements or a reduction in eligible funds. Any changes to Solvency II could also materially impact the wider TransRe group, given that Solvency II affects the calculation of the solvency of international groups which, like TransRe, conduct reinsurance and insurance operations both inside and outside of the EU. In addition, TransRe could be required to undertake a significant amount of additional work if compliance with the Solvency II regime came into question, which in turn may divert finite resources from other business related tasks.

Further, TransRe’s EU business could be materially and adversely affected by the adoption of any new rules which amend the common standards that EU Member States must adopt for authorizing and supervising EU branches of third country

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reinsurers, or “Third Country Reinsurers.” TRC operates on a cross-border basis within the EU as a Third Country Reinsurer through its third country branch in France. Currently, this branch of TRC does not experience any significant impact on its operations. However, in the future, TRC may be required to post additional collateral in EU countries or may need to consider restructuring its business in order to comply with new rules adopted in EU countries related to Third Country Reinsurers.

Other potential regulatory risks that may affect TransRe's EU business include the introduction of more complex and intensive regulatory reporting burdens, regulatory requirements that conflict with requirements in other jurisdictions, and shortages of skilled staff in critical areas such as the actuarial function, all of which may have a negative impact on the results of TRC, TRESA and the TransRe group.

TransRe's U.K. business may be affected by the U.K.’s departure from the EU, or “Brexit," on January 31, 2020 and the expiry of the subsequent transition period on December 31, 2020, following which TransRe's U.K. operations lost their European Economic Area financial services passporting rights. The relationship between the U.K. and the EU is now governed by the terms and conditions of a Trade and Cooperation Agreement, or the "Trade Agreement," which does not contain many substantive provisions relating to financial services. Similarly, it is not expected that the Memorandum of Understanding, or the "MOU," relating to financial services that has been concluded by the U.K. and the EU will materially alter this position, if it is ever formally entered into by the parties. The MOU is, instead, expected to establish a Joint U.K.-EU Regulatory Forum that will serve as a platform to facilitate dialogue between the parties on financial services issues.

In addition, the U.K.'s regime governing the prudential regulation and governance of (re)insurers could change in the near future, which would increase the potential for divergence between the U.K. and EU prudential regimes following Brexit. The U.K.’s HM Treasury has concluded a period of consultation with industry stakeholders on proposed changes of certain rules that have largely been transposed from Solvency II. HM Treasury is now expected to work with the PRA to prepare a package of reforms for consultation in early 2022. TRL and TRC’s branch in the U.K. could be materially impacted by this review. Additional information on the uncertainty surrounding the implementation and effect of Brexit can be found on page 55 of this Form 10-K.

In Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, People’s Republic of China and India, emerging markets where TransRe underwrites business on a cross-border basis, local regulations have recently been adopted that may operate to limit, restrict or increase the costs of TransRe’s access to these markets. If this trend continues to spread to other jurisdictions, TransRe’s ability to operate globally may be materially and adversely affected.

In addition to regulation within the U.S., the EU, the U.K. and the other non-U.S. jurisdictions where TransRe operates, we may be affected by regulatory policies adopted by the IAIS. Regulators in more than 200 jurisdictions and approximately 140 countries, representing both established and emerging markets, are working with the IAIS to consider changes to reinsurer and insurer solvency standards and group supervision of companies in a holding company system, including non-insurance companies. Current IAIS initiatives include development of a Common Framework for the Supervision of Internationally Active Insurance Groups, or “ComFrame,” which has been in progress since 2010. ComFrame is intended to provide a global framework of basic standards for internationally active insurance groups, or “IAIGs,” and a process for supervisors to cooperate in the supervision of IAIGs. A final form of ComFrame was formally adopted in November 2019 at the IAIS Annual General Meeting. Included in ComFrame was a risk-based, group-wide global insurance capital standard, or “ICS.” Work on the ICS began in October 2013, and ICS Version 2.0 was adopted in November 2019 and a five-year monitoring period began in January 2020. During the monitoring period, ICS Version 2.0 will not trigger any supervisory action, but will be used for confidential reporting and discussion in supervisory colleges to provide feedback to the IAIS on the ICS design and performance.

In 2018, the IAIS announced that it would commence development of a Holistic Framework for the Supervision of Insurance Companies. This Holistic Framework also was adopted in November 2019 and was implemented from the beginning of 2020. This framework recognizes that systemic risk can arise both from sector-wide trends with regard to specific activities and exposures, as well as from a concentration of these activities and exposures in individual insurers. The Holistic Framework consists of an enhanced set of supervisory policy measures and powers of intervention, an annual IAIS global monitoring exercise and collective discussion on the outcomes and appropriate supervisory responses.

Regulatory Convergence

Regulators within and outside the U.S. are increasingly coordinating the regulation of multinational insurers by conducting a supervisory college. A supervisory college, as defined by the IAIS, is “a forum for cooperation and communication between the involved supervisors established for the fundamental purpose of facilitating the effectiveness of supervision of entities which belong to an insurance group; facilitating both the supervisor of the group as a whole on a group-wide basis and improving the legal entity supervision of the entities within the insurance group.” We continue to assess the impact, if any, such coordination may have on insurance regulation and our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. The NYDFS advised TransRe to expect its inaugural Supervisory College in September of 2022.

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Reserves

Each of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries establishes reserves on its balance sheet for unpaid loss and LAE related to its property and casualty reinsurance and insurance contracts. The reserves for loss and LAE represent management’s best estimate of the ultimate cost of all reported and unreported losses incurred through the balance sheet date. The process of estimating these reserves is inherently difficult and involves a considerable degree of judgment, especially in view of changing legal and economic environments that impact loss reserve development. Therefore, quantitative techniques have to be supplemented by subjective considerations and managerial judgment. In addition, conditions and trends that have affected development of liabilities in the past may not necessarily occur or affect liability development to the same degree in the future. See Part II, Item 7, “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Critical Accounting Estimates” of this Form 10-K for additional information on our estimation process for the liability for unpaid loss and LAE.

Information on prior year loss reserve development and incurred and paid loss and LAE development by segment can be found in Note 6(b) and Note 6(c), respectively, to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K.

The following table presents the reconciliation of the aggregate net loss and LAE reserves of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries reported in the annual statements filed with state insurance departments prepared in accordance with SAP and those reported in our consolidated financial statements prepared in accordance with GAAP for the three years ended December 31, 2021.

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Reconciliation of Reserves for Loss and LAE from SAP Basis to GAAP Basis

See Note 6 to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for additional information on the loss and LAE reserves of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries.

Asbestos-Related Illness and Environmental Impairment Reserves

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries’ reserves for loss and LAE include amounts for risks related to asbestos-related illness and environmental impairment. The reserves carried for such claims, including the reserves for loss and LAE incurred but not reported, or “IBNR,” claims, are based upon known facts and current law at the respective balance sheet dates. However, significant uncertainty exists in determining the amount of ultimate liability for asbestos-related illness and environmental impairment losses. This uncertainty is due to, among other reasons, inconsistent and changing court resolutions and judicial interpretations with respect to underlying policy intent and coverage and uncertainties as to the allocation of responsibility for resultant damages. Further, possible future changes in statutes, laws, regulations, theories of liability and other factors could have a material effect on these liabilities and, accordingly, future earnings. Although we are unable at this time to determine whether additional reserves, which could have a material adverse effect upon our results of operations, may be necessary in the future, we believe that our asbestos-related illness and environmental impairment reserves were adequate as of December 31, 2021.

At December 31, 2021 and 2020, the reserves for asbestos-related illness liabilities were approximately ten and eleven times, respectively, the average paid claims for the respective prior three year period. At both December 31, 2021 and 2020, the reserves for environmental impairment liabilities were approximately nine and seven times, respectively the average paid claims for the respective prior three year period.

The following tables present the reconciliation of the beginning and ending gross reserve balances for unpaid loss and LAE related to asbestos–related illness and environmental impairment claims of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries for the three years ended December 31, 2021.

Reconciliation of Asbestos-Related Illness Claims Reserves for Loss and LAE

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Reconciliation of Environmental Impairment Claims Reserves for Loss and LAE

See Note 12(c) to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for additional information on asbestos-related illness and environmental impairment loss and LAE reserves of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries.

Item 1A. Risk Factors.

Our operating businesses and investments are subject to a number of risks and uncertainties, including those discussed below, which could have a material and adverse effect on our businesses, results of operations or financial condition. Our businesses may also be materially and adversely affected by risks and uncertainties not currently known to us or that we currently consider immaterial.

Risk Factors Related to our Business

We expect that the impact of the Pandemic will continue to materially affect our businesses, results of operations, financial condition and liquidity. The global spread of a novel coronavirus (COVID-19) and mitigation efforts by governments to attempt to control its spread have significantly impacted and may continue to significantly impact the global economy and our results of operations. We began to experience a negative impact on our results of operations arising from the Pandemic in the first quarter of 2020 and that impact continued throughout 2020 and, to a lesser extent 2021. Widespread vaccine rollouts in the U.S. occurred in early 2021 and are continuing; however, new variants of the virus have emerged which may continue to negatively affect our results of operations in future periods, including in 2022. The duration and extent of the impact of the Pandemic on our business depends on future developments that cannot be accurately predicted at this time, such as the severity and transmission rate of the virus, the extent and effectiveness of containment actions, the rollout of vaccinations, the spread of variant strains of COVID-19 and the impact of these and other factors on our employees, customers, suppliers and vendors. Given the scope and magnitude of the Pandemic, all of its direct and indirect consequences are not yet known and may not emerge for some time. The ongoing Pandemic presents risks and uncertainties to our operating businesses and investments, which could have a material adverse effect on our businesses, results of operations, financial condition and liquidity, including the following:

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The Pandemic’s duration cannot be predicted. An emergence of new variant COVID-19 strains that are resistant to current initiatives could once again trigger declines in our equity securities portfolio, additional credit-related realized and unrealized losses on our debt securities and commercial mortgage portfolios, additional credit losses on our reinsurance recoverables and other receivables, further losses from event cancellation and other coverages from our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries, negative impact to revenues and earnings of certain Alleghany Capital subsidiaries, loss of personnel as a result of federal, state or local vaccine mandates and difficulties in hiring replacement personnel, and impairment of certain Alleghany Capital subsidiary goodwill and intangible assets. As a result of any one or a combination of the risks identified above, the Pandemic could have a material adverse effect on our businesses, results of operations, financial condition and liquidity.

The reserves for loss and LAE of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are estimates and may not be adequate, which would require our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries to establish additional reserves. Gross reserves for loss and LAE reported on our balance sheet as of December 31, 2021 were approximately $14.4 billion. These loss and LAE reserves reflect management’s best estimates of the cost of settling all claims and related expenses with respect to insured events that have occurred. Reserves do not represent an exact calculation of liability, but rather an estimate of what management expects the ultimate settlement and claims administration will cost for events that have occurred, whether known or unknown. These reserve estimates, which generally involve actuarial projections, are based on management’s assessment of facts and circumstances currently known and assumptions about anticipated loss emergence patterns, including expected future trends in claims severity and frequency, inflation, court resolutions and judicial interpretations, reinsurance coverage, legislative changes and other factors.

The inherent uncertainties of estimating reserves are greater for certain types of liabilities, where long periods of time elapse before a definitive determination of liability is made and settlement is reached. Our liabilities for loss and LAE can generally be categorized into two distinct groups, short-tail business and long-tail business. Short-tail business refers to lines of business, such as property, for which losses are usually known and paid relatively soon after the loss actually occurs. Long-tail business describes lines of business for which specific losses may not be known and reported for some period and losses take much longer to emerge. Given the time frame over which long-tail exposures are ultimately settled, there is greater uncertainty and volatility in these lines than in short-tail lines of business. Our long-tail coverages consist of most casualty lines of business including professional liability, directors’ and officers’ liability, general liability, umbrella/excess liability and certain workers’ compensation exposures. Some factors that contribute to the uncertainty and volatility of long-tail casualty business, and thus require a significant degree of judgment in the reserving process, include the inherent uncertainty as to the length of reporting and payment development patterns, the possibility of judicial interpretations or legislative changes that might impact future loss experience relative to prior loss experience and the potential lack of comparability of the underlying data used in performing loss reserve analyses. In general, reinsurance business for any particular line of business is longer-tailed and, by its nature, losses are more difficult to estimate than they are for comparable insurance business.

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In periods with increased economic volatility, it becomes more difficult to accurately predict claims costs. It is especially difficult to estimate the impact of inflation on loss reserves given the current economic environment and related government actions. Reserve estimates are continually refined in an ongoing process as experience develops and further claims are reported and settled. Adjustments to reserves are reflected in the results of the periods in which the adjustments are made. Because setting reserves is inherently uncertain, our current reserves could prove to be too low or too high in light of subsequent events. Should our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries need to increase or decrease their reserves, our pre-tax income for the period would decrease or increase, respectively, by a corresponding amount. Although current reserves reflect our best estimate of the costs of settling claims, we cannot assure you that our reserve estimates will not change, perhaps by a material amount, in the future.

Because our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are property and casualty reinsurers and insurers, we face losses related to natural and man-made catastrophes. Property and casualty reinsurers and insurers are subject to claims arising out of catastrophes that may have a significant effect on their results of operations, liquidity and financial condition. Catastrophe losses, or the absence thereof, have historically had a significant impact on our results. See “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Overview” contained in Item 7 of this Form 10-K.

Natural or man-made catastrophes can be caused by various events, including hurricanes, other windstorms, earthquakes, floods, wildfires, pandemics, as well as terrorist activities. The frequency and severity of catastrophes in any short period of time are inherently unpredictable. The extent of gross losses related to a catastrophe event is a function of both the total amount of insured exposure in the area affected by the event and the severity of the event, potentially mitigated by any reinsurance coverage purchased by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. Most catastrophes are restricted to limited geographic areas; however, hurricanes, other windstorms, earthquakes and floods may produce significant damage when those areas are heavily populated. It is therefore possible that a catastrophic event or multiple catastrophic events could produce significant losses and have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

With respect to terrorism, to the extent that reinsurers have excluded coverage for certain terrorist acts or have priced this coverage at rates that make purchasing such coverage uneconomic, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries will not have reinsurance protection and are exposed to potential losses as a result of any acts of terrorism. To the extent an act of terrorism is certified by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, we may be covered under the Terrorism Act. This coverage under the Terrorism Act does not apply to reinsurers. Information regarding the Terrorism Act and its impact on our insurance subsidiaries can be found on page 34 of this Form 10-K.

In general, TransRe does not provide coverage for certified acts of terrorism, as defined by the Terrorism Act, but it is nonetheless exposed to potential losses related to both certified and uncertified acts of terrorism in the U.S. or elsewhere, such as from terrorism-specific treaty coverages offered to ceding companies or terrorism risk pools outside of the U.S. on a limited basis, and with respect to other lines of business from the assumption of terrorism risk in marine, aviation and other casualty treaties. Although TransRe assumes such terrorism risk after careful underwriting consideration and, in many cases, with limitations, a major terrorist event could have a material adverse impact on TransRe and us.

Finally, other catastrophes, such as an outbreak of a pandemic disease or a marine or aviation disaster, could also have a materially adverse effect on our business and operating results.

Climate change, as well as increasing regulation in the area of climate change, may adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Changing weather patterns and climatic conditions have added to the unpredictability, severity and potentially the frequency of natural disasters and weather events, such as hurricanes, tornado activity, other windstorms, floods and wildfires, in certain parts of the world and created additional uncertainty as to future, longer-term trends and exposures. Although the loss experience of catastrophe reinsurers and insurers has historically been characterized as low frequency, there is a growing consensus today that climate change may be increasing the frequency and severity of extreme weather events and, in recent years, the frequency of major catastrophes appears to have increased, and may continue to increase in the future.

Longer-term natural catastrophe trends due to climate change have been associated with extreme weather events linked to rising temperatures, and include effects on global weather patterns, greenhouse gases, sea, land and air temperatures, sea levels, rain and snow. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries take measures to mitigate the impact of such events by considering these risks in their underwriting and pricing decisions, including their management of aggregate exposure levels and through the purchase of reinsurance. To the extent climate change increases the frequency and severity of such natural disasters and weather events, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries, particularly TransRe and RSUI, may face increased claims, particularly with respect to properties located in coastal areas. Increases in insured losses, particularly if those losses exceed the expectations of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries, could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Further, claims for catastrophic events, or an unusual frequency of smaller losses in a particular period could have a material adverse effect on our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries’ ability to write new business if they are not able to adequately assess and reserve for the increased frequency and severity of catastrophes resulting from these environmental factors.

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Additionally, catastrophic events and the effects of climate change could result in increased credit exposure to reinsurers and other counterparties we, and our subsidiaries, transact business with, declines in the value of investments we hold and significant disruptions to our physical infrastructure, systems and operations. Climate change-related risks may also specifically adversely impact the value of the securities that we hold.

Changes in security asset prices may impact the value of our fixed income, real estate and commercial mortgage investments, resulting in realized or unrealized losses on our invested assets. These risks can include, but are not limited to: (i) changes in supply/demand characteristics for fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas); (ii) advances in low-carbon technology and renewable energy development; and (iii) effects of extreme weather events on the physical and operational exposure of industries and issuers, and the transition that these companies make towards addressing climate risk in their own businesses.

However, we cannot predict how legal, regulatory and/or social responses to concerns around global climate change may impact our business. We attempt to manage our exposure to such events through the use of underwriting controls, risk models, and the purchase of third-party reinsurance. Underwriting controls can include more restrictive underwriting criteria such as higher premiums and deductibles, or losses retained, and more specifically excluded policy risks. There can be no assurance that our reinsurance coverage and other measures taken will be sufficient to mitigate losses resulting from one or more climate change impacted catastrophic events. As a result, the occurrence of one or more catastrophic events and the continuation and worsening of recent trends could have an adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition.

Significant competitive pressures may prevent our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries from retaining existing business or writing new business at adequate rates. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries compete with a large number of other companies in their selected lines of business. They compete, and will continue to compete, with major U.S. and non-U.S. reinsurers and insurers, other regional companies, mutual companies, specialty insurance companies, underwriting agencies, government-owned or subsidized facilities, European underwriting syndicates and diversified financial services companies. Many competitors have considerably more financial resources, greater experience and may offer more products or services than our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. Except for regulatory considerations, there are virtually no barriers to entry into the reinsurance and insurance industry.

Additionally, the reinsurance and insurance industry continues to consolidate and, accordingly, competition for customers will continue to increase. As a result, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries may incur greater customer retention and acquisition expense, which would affect the profitability of existing and new business. Further, as the industry continues to consolidate, reinsurance and insurance companies that merge could have increased market size and capital resources with which to negotiate price reductions and retain more risk, decreasing pricing and demand for reinsurance.

Competition in the businesses of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries is based on many factors, including the perceived financial strength of a company, premiums charged, other terms and conditions offered, services provided, commissions paid to producers, ratings assigned by independent rating agencies, speed of claims payment and reputation and experience in the lines to be written. Such competition could cause the supply or demand for insurance to change, which could affect the ability of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries to price their products at adequate rates. If our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are unable to retain existing business or write new business at adequate rates, our results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

In addition to competition from the reinsurance industry, TransRe faces competition from the capital markets, as well as some traditional reinsurers, which from time to time produce alternative products or reinsurance vehicles (such as collateralized reinsurance, reinsurance securitizations, catastrophe bonds and various derivatives, such as swaps and sidecars) that may compete with certain types of reinsurance, such as property catastrophe. Hedge funds may also provide reinsurance and retrocessional protections through captive companies or other alternative transactions on a fully collateralized basis for property and energy catastrophe business. Over time, these initiatives could significantly affect supply, pricing and competition in the reinsurance industry.

Our results may fluctuate as a result of many factors, including cyclical changes in the reinsurance and insurance industries. Historically, the performance of the property and casualty reinsurance and insurance industries has tended to fluctuate in cyclical periods of price competition and excess underwriting capacity, followed by periods of high premium rates and shortages of underwriting capacity. Although an individual reinsurance and insurance company’s performance is dependent on its own specific business characteristics, the profitability of most property and casualty reinsurance and insurance companies tends to follow this market cycle. Further, this cyclical market pattern can be more pronounced in the reinsurance market in which TransRe competes and in the excess and surplus market in which RSUI primarily competes than in the standard insurance market. In addition, compared with historical cyclical periods, a cycle of increased price competition and excess underwriting capacity may continue for a prolonged period of time as new and existing reinsurance and insurance market participants and products continue to enter the reinsurance and insurance markets. Unfavorable market conditions may affect the ability of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries to write business at rates they consider appropriate relative to the risk assumed. If we cannot write business at appropriate rates, our business would be significantly and adversely affected.

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When premium rates are high and there is a shortage of capacity in the standard insurance market, growth in the excess and surplus market can be significantly more rapid than growth in the standard insurance market. Similarly, when there is price competition and excess underwriting capacity in the standard insurance market, many customers that were previously driven into the excess and surplus market may return to the standard insurance market, exacerbating the effects of price competition.

Demand for reinsurance is influenced significantly by underwriting and investment results in both the standard insurance and the excess and surplus markets and market conditions. The supply of reinsurance is related to prevailing prices, the levels of insured losses and the levels of reinsurance industry surplus, among other factors, that, in turn, may fluctuate in response to changes in rates of return on investments being earned in the reinsurance industry. In addition, the supply of reinsurance is affected by a reinsurer’s confidence in its ability to accurately assess the probability of expected underwriting outcomes, particularly with respect to catastrophe losses.

Since cyclicality is due in large part to the collective actions of insurers, reinsurers and general economic conditions and the occurrence of unpredictable events, we cannot predict the timing or duration of changes in the market cycle. These cyclical patterns cause our revenues and net earnings to fluctuate. In addition, our results may fluctuate as a result of changes in economic, legal, political and social factors, among others.

We cannot guarantee that the reinsurers used by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries will pay in a timely fashion, if at all, and, as a result, we could experience losses even if reinsured. As part of their overall risk and capacity management strategy, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries purchase reinsurance by transferring or ceding part of the risk that they have underwritten to a reinsurance company in exchange for part of the premium received by our subsidiaries in connection with that risk. Although reinsurance makes the reinsurer liable to our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries to the extent the risk is transferred or ceded to the reinsurer, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries remain liable for amounts not paid by a reinsurer. Reinsurers may not pay the reinsurance recoverables that they owe to our subsidiaries or they may not pay these recoverables on a timely basis. This risk may increase significantly if these reinsurers experience financial difficulties as a result of catastrophes, investment losses or other events. Accordingly, we bear credit risk with respect to our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries’ reinsurers, and if they fail to pay, our financial results would be adversely affected. As of December 31, 2021, reinsurance recoverables reported on our balance sheet were $2.2 billion.

If market conditions cause reinsurance to be more costly or unavailable, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries may be required to bear increased risks or reduce the level of their underwriting commitments. As part of their overall risk management strategy, our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries purchase reinsurance for certain amounts of risk underwritten by them, including catastrophe risks. The reinsurance programs purchased by our subsidiaries are generally subject to annual renewal. Market conditions beyond their control determine the availability and cost of the reinsurance protection they purchase, which may affect the level of their business written and thus their profitability. If our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are unable to renew their expiring facilities or to obtain new reinsurance facilities, which could result as the number of companies offering reinsurance coverage declines due to industry consolidation, either their net exposures on future policies or reinsurance contracts would increase, which could increase the volatility of their results or, if they are unwilling or unable to bear an increase in net exposures, they would have to reduce the level of their underwriting commitments, especially catastrophe-exposed risks, which may reduce their revenues and net earnings. In certain reinsurance contracts, a cedant, to the extent it exhausts its original coverage under a reinsurance contract during a single coverage period (typically a single twelve-month period), can pay a reinsurance reinstatement premium to restore coverage during such coverage period. If our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries exhaust their original and, if applicable, reinstated coverage under their third-party reinsurance contracts during a single coverage period, they will not have any reinsurance coverage available for losses incurred as a result of additional loss events during that coverage period. The exhaustion of such reinsurance coverage could have a material adverse effect on the profitability of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries in any given period and on our results of operations.

TransRe and RSUI attempt to manage their exposure to catastrophe risk partially through the use of catastrophe modeling software. The failure of this software to accurately gauge the catastrophe-exposed risks they write could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations and cash flows. As part of their approach to managing catastrophe risk, TransRe and RSUI use a number of tools, including third-party catastrophe modeling software, to help evaluate potential losses. TransRe and RSUI use modeled loss scenarios and internal analyses to set their level of risk retention and help structure their reinsurance programs. Modeled loss estimates, however, have not always accurately predicted their ultimate losses with respect to catastrophe events. Accordingly, TransRe and RSUI periodically review their catastrophe exposure management approach, which may result in the implementation of new monitoring tools and a revision of their underwriting guidelines and procedures. However, these efforts may not be successful in sufficiently mitigating risk exposures and losses resulting from future catastrophes.

Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are rated by rating agencies and a decline in these ratings could affect the standings of these units in the reinsurance and insurance industries and cause their premium volume and earnings to decrease. Ratings continue to be an important factor in establishing the competitive positions of reinsurance and insurance companies. Some of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are rated by A.M. Best, S&P and/or Moody’s, which we

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collectively refer to as the “Rating Agencies.” The Rating Agencies’ financial strength ratings reflect their opinions of a reinsurance or an insurance company’s financial strength, operating performance, strategic position and ability to meet its obligations to policyholders, and are neither an evaluation directed to investors of a security nor a recommendation to buy, sell or hold a security. These ratings are subject to periodic review, and we cannot assure you that any of our reinsurance or insurance companies will be able to retain their current ratings. The Rating Agencies may change their methodology or requirements for determining ratings, or they may become more conservative in assigning ratings. The Rating Agencies could also increase capital requirements for our reinsurance or insurance subsidiaries, thereby reducing deployable capital at such subsidiary or at the parent level. If the ratings of our reinsurance or insurance companies are reduced from their current levels by the Rating Agencies, their competitive positions could suffer and it would be more difficult for them to market their products. A significant downgrade could result in a substantial loss of business as customers move to other companies with higher financial strength ratings.

In addition, in general, if the financial strength ratings of TransRe’s operating subsidiaries from the Rating Agencies fall below A-, a significant portion of TransRe’s operating subsidiaries’ contracts that contain rating agency triggers would allow customers to elect to take a number of actions such as terminating the contracts on a run-off or cut-off basis, requiring TransRe’s operating subsidiaries to post collateral for all or a portion of the obligations or requiring commutation under the contracts. Some of these contracts, however, contain dual triggers, such as requiring both a ratings downgrade below A- and a significant decline in the statutory surplus of TransRe’s operating subsidiaries before such cancellation or collateralization rights would be exercisable. Contracts may contain one or both of the aforementioned contractual provisions, or certain other collateralization or cancellation triggers. Whether a ceding company would exercise any of these cancellation rights would depend on, among other factors, the reason and extent of such downgrade or surplus reduction, the prevailing market conditions and the pricing and availability of replacement reinsurance coverage. We cannot predict the extent to which these contractual rights would be exercised, if at all, or what effect such exercises would have on our financial condition or future operations, but such effect potentially could be materially adverse to us.

TransRe may also enter into agreements with ceding companies that require it to provide collateral for its obligations, including where TransRe’s obligations to these ceding companies exceed negotiated thresholds. These thresholds may vary depending on the ratings of TransRe’s operating subsidiaries, and a ratings downgrade or a failure to achieve a certain rating may increase the amount of collateral TransRe is required to provide. An increase in the amount of collateral TransRe is obligated to provide to secure its obligations may have an adverse impact on, among other things, TransRe’s ability to write additional reinsurance.

A limited number of brokers account for a large portion of TransRe’s premiums; the loss of all or a substantial portion of the business provided by them may have an adverse effect on us. The great majority of TransRe’s premiums are written through brokers. Several large international brokers dominate the reinsurance brokerage industry, and TransRe derives a significant portion of its premiums from these brokers. Further, TransRe may become increasingly reliant on these brokers due to continued consolidation in the broker sector. The loss of all or a substantial portion of the business provided by these brokers could have a material adverse effect on us.

Difficult and volatile conditions in the global capital and credit markets and in the overall economy could materially and adversely affect the results of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. Disruption and volatility in the global capital and credit markets and in the overall economy affects our businesses in a number of ways, including the following:

It is difficult to predict when and how long these types of conditions may exist and how our markets, business and investments will be adversely affected. Accordingly, these conditions could have a material adverse effect on our consolidated financial condition or results of operations in future periods.

The businesses of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are heavily regulated, and changes in regulation may limit their ability to pay dividends, reduce their profitability and limit their growth. Our reinsurance and insurance operating subsidiaries are subject to extensive regulation and supervision in the jurisdictions in which they conduct business, both in the U.S. and other countries. This regulation is generally designed to protect the interests of policyholders and not necessarily the interests of insurers, their stockholders or other investors. The regulation relates to authorization for lines of business, capital and surplus requirements, investment limitations, underwriting limitations, transactions with affiliates, dividend limitations, changes

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in control, premium rates and a variety of other financial and non-financial components of a reinsurance or insurance company’s business. Moreover, insurance laws and regulations, among other things: establish solvency requirements, including minimum reserves and capital and surplus requirements; limit the amount of dividends, tax distributions, intercompany loans and other payments our insurance subsidiaries can make without prior regulatory approval; and impose restrictions on the amount and type of investments we may hold. Regulatory and legislative authorities continue to implement enhanced or new regulatory requirements that may impact our reinsurance and insurance businesses. The application of these laws could affect our liquidity and ability to pay dividends, interest and other payments on securities, among other things.

Virtually all states in which our insurance operating subsidiary companies conduct their business require them, together with other insurers licensed to do business in that state, to bear a portion of the loss suffered by some insureds as the result of impaired or insolvent insurance companies. In addition, in various states, our insurance operating subsidiary companies must participate in mandatory arrangements to provide various types of insurance coverage to individuals or other entities that otherwise are unable to purchase that coverage from private insurers. A few states require our insurance operating subsidiary companies to purchase reinsurance from a mandatory reinsurance fund. Such reinsurance funds can create a credit risk for insurers if not adequately funded by the state and, in some cases, the existence of a reinsurance fund could affect the prices charged for the policies issued by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries. The effect of these and similar arrangements could reduce the profitability of our insurance operating subsidiaries in any given period or limit their ability to grow their business.

In recent years, the state insurance regulatory framework has come under increased scrutiny, and some state legislatures have considered or enacted laws that may alter or increase state authority to regulate insurance companies and insurance holding companies. Further, the NAIC and state insurance regulators are continually reexamining existing laws and regulations, specifically focusing on modifications to statutory accounting principles, credit for reinsurance laws, interpretations of existing laws and the development of new laws and regulations. The regulatory environment surrounding climate change and the related risks is becoming increasingly demanding. For instance, on November 15, 2021, the NYDFS issued final guidance that sets forth the regulator’s detailed expectations for how New York domestic insurers should address and manage financial risks from climate change, which guidance applies to TRC and FAIRCO. In addition, on the federal level, the FIO has been instructed by President Biden’s Executive Order on Climate-Related Financial Risk, dated May 20, 2021, to seek public comment on a series of questions that “will help inform FIO’s assessment of climate-related financial risks for the insurance sector.” The FIO’s Request for Information notes that the FIO plans to “...take a leadership role in analyzing how the insurance sector may help mitigate climate-related risks [and to that end, it] will engage with the insurance sector to assess how the sector may help achieve national climate-related goals, including mitigation, adaptation, and transition to a lower carbon economy.” The comment period ended in November 2021. Further, the Dodd-Frank Act mandated significant changes to the regulation of U.S. insurance. These regulatory initiatives and regulations, and any proposed or future state or federal legislation or NAIC initiatives, if adopted, may be more restrictive on the ability of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries to conduct business than current regulatory requirements or may result in higher compliance costs. Information regarding the impact of regulation and current regulatory changes on our reinsurance and insurance operating subsidiaries can be found on pages 38 through 44 of this Form 10-K.

Our operations in jurisdictions outside the U.S. are subject to certain limitations and risks that are unique to foreign operations. Our international operations and assets held abroad are also subject to significant legal, market, operational, compliance and regulatory risks, including risks related to:

The risks of such occurrences and their overall effect upon us vary from country to country and cannot be predicted. In addition, our results of operations and net unrealized currency translation gain or loss (a component of accumulated other comprehensive income) are subject to volatility as the value of the foreign currencies fluctuate relative to the U.S. dollar. Further, regulations governing technical reserves and remittance balances in some countries may hinder remittance of profits and repatriation of assets.

In addition, TransRe’s international operations are also regulated in various jurisdictions with respect to licensing requirements, solvency, currency, amount and type of security deposits, amount and type of reserves, amount and type of local investments and other matters. The international and U.S. laws and regulations that are applicable to TransRe’s international operations are complex and may increase the costs of regulatory compliance, limit or restrict TransRe’s business or subject TransRe to regulatory actions or proceedings in the future. Although TransRe attempts to comply with all applicable laws and

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regulations and seek licenses to undertake various activities where appropriate, there can be no assurance that TransRe is, or will be, in full compliance with all applicable laws and regulations, or interpretations of these laws and regulations, at all times. In addition, it is TransRe’s policy to continually monitor compliance with, and voluntarily report to appropriate regulatory authorities any potential violations of, all applicable laws and regulations where it is deemed appropriate, including anti-corruption and trade sanction laws, and any failure to comply with any such laws and regulations may subject TransRe to investigations, sanctions or other remedies, including fines, injunctions, increased scrutiny or oversight by regulatory authorities. The cost of compliance or the consequences of non-compliance, including reputational damage, could have a material adverse effect on our consolidated financial condition or results of operations in future periods.

On January 16, 2016, following implementation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or the “JCPOA,” certain trade sanctions laws of the EU and the United Nations restricting dealings with Iran and Iranian entities were substantially eased, and the U.S. also provided relief for certain restrictions on individuals and entities outside of the U.S. On Implementation Day, the U.S. also authorized, under General License H, foreign companies owned or controlled by U.S. persons, such as TRL and TRESA, to engage in certain transactions involving Iran and Iranian entities. Pursuant to General License H and a specific license issued to TransRe, TRL and TRESA provided reinsurance coverage to non-Iranian cedants that had exposure to de minimis Iran-related risks that were permissible under General License H. On May 8, 2018, the U.S. announced it would cease participation in the JCPOA and reinstated the sanctions that were in effect prior to U.S. participation. Foreign companies owned or controlled by U.S. persons were given until November 5, 2018 to withdraw from any business dealings that were entered into under General License H and any additional authorizations, including general or specific licenses, granted by OFAC. Consequently, TRL and TRESA timely discontinued such coverage. As the failure to comply with trade sanctions prohibitions could subject TransRe to investigations, significant fines and other penalties, TransRe has implemented processes and procedures to comply with the reinstated trade sanctions laws of the U.S. Additionally, TransRe may be subject to penalties and fines in jurisdictions, such as the EU, that impose restrictions on compliance with unilateral extraterritorial trade sanctions by TransRe’s non-U.S. subsidiaries, including those imposed against Iran and Cuba. The cost of compliance or the consequences of non-compliance with the trade sanctions laws of the U.S. and other jurisdictions, including reputational damage, could have a material adverse effect on our consolidated financial condition or results of operations.

Prior to January 13, 2017, the U.S. maintained comprehensive sanctions against Sudan. On January 13, 2017, OFAC issued a general license authorizing all transactions previously prohibited by the Sudan Sanctions Regulations, which sanctions were then revoked on October 12, 2017. As a result, beginning January 13, 2017, sanctions exclusions clauses, which TransRe utilizes in its reinsurance contracts to exclude coverage of prohibited risks, no longer excluded coverage of Sudanese risks by TransRe, and TransRe was obliged under the language of its reinsurance contracts to provide coverage and pay valid claims occurring on or after that date on any covered Sudanese risks legally permissible. Despite the lifting of U.S. sanctions, Sudan remained on the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism until December 14, 2020, when that designation was rescinded. TransRe has no direct business with Sudanese cedants or any contracts with Sudanese entities. A small number of Sudanese-related risks are underwritten by non-Sudanese cedants for which TransRe provides coverage under reinsurance treaties and which are not, as a result of the lifting of U.S. sanctions, excluded under the sanctions exclusions in such treaties. The revenue associated with such reinsurance covering this small number of Sudanese-related risks is immaterial to both TransRe and Alleghany.

With regards to TransRe’s operations within the EU, TRC operates within the EU as a Third Country Reinsurer under Solvency II through a third country branch in France and on a cross-border basis. Currently, TransRe continues to conduct business within the EU through a branch of TRC and TRESA with no significant impact on its operations. However, TransRe could be materially and adversely affected by rules adopted by a Member State relating to Third Country Reinsurers. For example, TRC may be required to post additional collateral in EU countries or may need to consider further restructuring its business in order to comply with the rules adopted in EU countries related to Third Country Reinsurers.

Additionally, as described above on page 43, various aspects of Solvency II are likely to change in the near future, due to the European Commission’s review of certain aspects of the Directive, which culminated in its publication of a package of proposed legislative reforms on September 22, 2021. This review of Solvency II could affect the way in which TransRe’s international group, including TRESA and TRC’s EU branch operate and may have a negative impact on our results. For example, it may reduce TRESA and/or TRC’s regulatory solvency position by increasing capital requirements or reducing eligible funds. Any changes to Solvency II could also materially impact the group, since Solvency II affects the calculation of the solvency of international groups which, like TransRe, conduct reinsurance and insurance operations both inside and outside of the EU.

More generally, uncertainty remains as to: (i) how the Solvency II regime will continue to be enforced; and (ii) the continued effectiveness of the coordination and cooperation of information sharing among supervisory bodies and regulators or the effect, if any, that these developments may have on TransRe’s operations and financial condition.

Other potential regulatory risks include the introduction of more complex and intensive regulatory reporting burdens, regulatory requirements that conflict with requirements in other jurisdictions, and shortages of skilled staff in critical areas such as the actuarial function, all of which may have a negative impact on the results of TRESA, TRC and the TransRe group. In

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addition, we could be required to undertake a significant amount of additional work if our compliance with the Solvency II regime ever came into question, which in turn may divert finite resources from other business related tasks.

Regulatory uncertainty has increased as a result of the Brexit referendum which led to the U.K. leaving the EU on January 31, 2020. The Trade Agreement between the U.K. and the EU, which now governs the terms of their relationship, does not contain many substantive provisions relating to financial services. Similarly, it is not expected that the MOU relating to financial services that has been concluded by the U.K. and the EU will materially alter this position, if it is ever formally entered into by the parties. As a result, TRL has now lost its EEA financial services passport, which enabled it to operate across borders within the single EU market without obtaining any required local regulatory approval where insurers and cedants are located.

In addition, the U.K.’s regulatory regime in terms of prudential regulation and governance could diverge, as the U.K. is now free to determine its own regulatory regime. As described above on page 44, the U.K.’s HM Treasury has concluded a period of consultation on potential changes to certain rules that have largely been transposed from Solvency II, and will now work with the PRA to prepare a package of reforms for consultation in early 2022. We cannot currently predict what changes will be made to the U.K.’s regulatory regime following the culmination of this process. We may have to review our underwriting platforms and incur additional regulatory and transactional costs as a result of any changes to the U.K’s regulatory regime.

Any such divergence may affect determinations of equivalence made by the U.K. and the EU in relation to the other’s prudential regime. The U.K. has already declared the EU’s Solvency II regime to be equivalent to its own. However, the EU may not make the same determination. It is not clear what the impact will be on TRL, TRESA and TRC if the EU does not determine the U.K. regulatory regime to be equivalent to its own regime. Further, even if equivalence is confirmed by the EU, either side may withdraw their respective declarations in the future.

Brexit could have a broader adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. The uncertainty surrounding the effect of Brexit, including the implementation and enforcement of a number of terms and conditions of the Trade Agreement and its relationship with the remaining members of the EU (including in relation to trade and services) post-Brexit has increased economic volatility and market uncertainty globally, including the volatility of currency exchange rates, interest rates and credit spreads. It has already led, and may continue to lead, to disruptions for the European and global financial markets, such as the decrease in the value of the British Pound and of market values of listed U.K. companies, in particular from the financial services and insurance sector.

The U.K. has also lost access to the global trade deals negotiated by the EU on behalf of its Member States, although many of those global trade deals have been replicated by the U.K. Any consequential decline in trade could affect the attractiveness of the U.K. as a global investment center and, as a result, could have a detrimental impact on U.K. growth.

The long-term effect of Brexit on the value of our investment portfolio at this time is uncertain and such volatility and uncertainty will likely continue even after the conclusion of negotiations pertaining to the Trade Agreement.

In Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, India and the People’s Republic of China, emerging markets where TransRe underwrites business on a cross-border basis, local regulations have recently been adopted that may operate to limit, restrict or increase the costs of TransRe’s access to these markets. If this trend continues to spread to other jurisdictions, TransRe’s ability to operate globally may be materially and adversely affected.

The loss of key personnel at our operating subsidiaries could adversely affect our results of operations, financial condition and cash flows. We rely upon the knowledge and talent of the employees of our operating subsidiaries to successfully conduct their business. Changes in local employment legislation, taxation and the approach of regulatory bodies to compensation practice within our operating jurisdictions may impact our ability to recruit and retain senior employees or the cost to us of doing so. We may experience a loss of personnel as a result of federal, state or local vaccine mandates as well as difficulties in hiring replacement personnel. A loss of key personnel could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations, financial condition and cash flows in future periods. Our success has depended, and will continue to depend in substantial part, upon our ability to attract and retain key personnel at our operating subsidiaries. The loss of key services of any key personnel at our operating subsidiaries may adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Errors and misconduct by our employees, agents, intermediaries or representatives may be difficult to detect and prevent and could expose us to significant legal liability and reputational harm. Our employees and the employees of our subsidiaries could engage in misconduct that adversely affects our business. It is not always possible to detect or prevent employee error or misconduct, and the controls and procedures that we have in place to prevent and detect this activity may not be effective in all cases. Losses may result from, among other things, illegal acts, unethical behavior, fraud, errors, failure to document transactions properly, failure to obtain proper internal authorization, failure to comply with underwriting or other internal guidelines by our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries or failure to comply with regulatory requirements or our internal policies. We could be subject to litigation, regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation or financial position if employees were to engage or be accused of engaging in illegal or suspicious activities or failing to comply with internal guidelines and protocols. Misconduct by employees, or even unsubstantiated allegations, could result in a material adverse effect on our reputation, financial condition and results of operations.

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We are subject to the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, the U.K. Bribery Act and similar worldwide anti-bribery laws, which impose restrictions and may carry substantial penalties. Violations of these laws or allegations of such violations could adversely affect results of operations or financial condition. The U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and anti-bribery laws in other jurisdictions, including the U.K. Bribery Act that took effect in 2011, generally prohibit companies and their intermediaries from making improper payments for the purpose of obtaining or retaining business or other commercial advantage. Our policies and controls are designed to ensure compliance with these anti-bribery laws and regulations, which often carry substantial penalties. We cannot assure you that our internal control policies and procedures always will protect us from reckless or other inappropriate acts committed by our affiliates, employees, agents or other third parties with whom we do business. In such event, we could be exposed to civil penalties, criminal penalties and other sanctions, including fines or other punitive actions. In addition, such violations could damage our business and/or our reputation. Such criminal or civil sanctions, penalties, other sanctions and damage to our business or reputation could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial position and results of operations.

We are subject to risks related to our use of information technology. We rely on information technology in virtually all aspects of our business. Our subsidiaries depend on the proper functioning and availability of their information technology platforms, including communications and data processing systems, in operating their businesses and their access to and the integrity of the information stored on and processed by these platforms is a related risk. These systems consist of software programs that are integral to the efficient operation of the businesses of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries, including programs for proprietary pricing and exposure management, processing payments and claims, filing and making changes to records and providing customer support. Our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are also required to effect electronic transmissions with third parties including brokers, clients, vendors and others with whom they do business. In addition, certain of our subsidiaries provide to customers online applications or websites through the use of a portal. These customer-facing applications and websites may increase the risk of the cybersecurity incidents described below.

We develop and maintain a cybersecurity and data privacy governance framework, assessment process and trainings to identify and mitigate cyber security and data privacy risks, but the development and maintenance of this program is costly and requires ongoing monitoring and updating as technologies change and efforts to overcome security measures become more sophisticated. To date, we have not experienced any material impact to the business or operations resulting from cybersecurity attacks or failures or disruptions of information technology systems; however, it is not possible to protect against every potential power loss, telecommunications failure, cybersecurity attack or breach or similar event that may arise and we may be impacted by such incidents in the future. Moreover, the safeguards we use are subject to human implementation and maintenance and to other uncertainties. Any of these cyber incidents may result in a violation of applicable laws or regulations (including privacy and other laws), damage our reputation, cause a loss of customers and give rise to monetary fines and other penalties which could be significant. Such events could have an adverse effect on our results of operations, financial condition and liquidity.

A significant disruption or failure of our information technology systems may have a significant impact on our operations, potentially resulting in service interruptions, security violations, regulatory compliance failures and other operational difficulties.

In addition, any attack perpetrated against our information systems, or those of our affiliates, vendors, or other similar third party systems, including through a system failure, security breach or disruption by malware, ransomware or other damage, could similarly impact our operations and result in loss or misuse of information, litigation and potential liability. Further, like other corporations, we have been subject to, and will continue to be subject to, attacks on our information systems and other vulnerabilities to data security incidents. These attacks and incidents have included, or may in the future include: unauthorized access, viruses, malware or other malicious code, ransomware, deceptive social engineering campaigns (also known as “phishing” or “spoofing”), loss or theft of assets, employee errors or malfeasance, third-party errors or malfeasance, as well as system failures and other security events.

A natural or man-made disaster could cause significant business interruptions for certain of our subsidiaries that may adversely affect their results of operations, financial condition and cash flows. The operations of certain of our subsidiaries, and those of their suppliers and customers, may potentially suffer significant business interruptions due to the effects of natural disasters (such as earthquakes, tsunamis, severe storms or hurricanes, typhoons, floods, outbreaks of pandemic or contagious diseases, including the Pandemic) or man-made disasters (such as fires, explosions, acts of terrorism or war, security breaches, cyberattacks, and power and telecommunications failures). Such business interruptions could cause those subsidiaries and their businesses to suffer serious harm to their operations, financial condition and cash flows. While we regularly assess and take steps to improve our existing business continuation and crisis management plans, there can be no assurance that these plans or the insurance coverages we maintain would be effective in mitigating any negative effects on our operations in the event of a disaster or resulting business interruption, nor can we provide assurance that the business continuation and crisis management plans of the independent suppliers and customers on whom our subsidiaries rely for certain services and products would be effective in mitigating any negative effects on the provision of such services and products in the event of a disaster.

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The costs of complying with, or our failure to comply with, U.S. and foreign laws related to privacy, data security and data protection, such as the EU General Data Protection Regulation, could adversely affect our results of operations or financial condition and our reputation. The regulatory environment surrounding information security and privacy is increasingly demanding and evolving. We are subject to numerous U.S. federal and state laws and non-U.S. regulations governing the protection of personal and confidential information of our clients or employees, including the NYDFS Cybersecurity Regulation, which mandates detailed cybersecurity standards for all institutions, including insurance entities, authorized by the NYDFS to operate in New York. Among the requirements are the maintenance of a cybersecurity program with governance controls, risk-based minimum data security standards for technology systems, cyber breach preparedness and response requirements, including reporting obligations, vendor oversight, training and program record keeping and certification obligations. The NYDFS Cybersecurity Regulation has increased our compliance costs, and the consequences of noncompliance could include regulatory enforcement actions and penalties, as well as reputation risk.

Likewise, in October 2021, the FTC amended the Safeguards Rule, or the "Amended Safeguards Rule," which applies to financial institutions throughout the U.S. pursuant to the GLBA. The Amended Safeguards Rule does not come fully into effect until October 2022. Many of the requirements are similar to the NYDFS Cybersecurity Regulation, but there are some differences that may impose increased operational burdens and compliance costs. The consequences of non-compliance could include FTC enforcement action and possible fines, as well as even more burdensome requirements on and changes to our data security practices, as well as reputational harm.

The NAIC adopted an Insurance Data Security Model Law, which would require licensed insurance entities to comply with detailed information security requirements. The NAIC model law is similar in many respects to the NYDFS Cybersecurity Regulation and the Amended Safeguards Rule. To date, the Insurance Data Security Model Law has been adopted by several states, including some of the states where our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries are domiciled. If the NAIC model law continues to be enacted in additional states, such enacted laws could be inconsistent between states or with existing laws and regulations, which could raise compliance costs or increase the risk of noncompliance, with the attendant risk of being subject to regulatory enforcement actions and penalties, as well as reputational harm. Any such events could potentially have an adverse impact on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

We are also subject to California law, including the CCPA, which went into effect on January 1, 2020. The CCPA established a privacy framework for covered businesses which collect and process the personal information of California consumers. It includes a broad definition of personal information, affords California residents certain individual rights of access and deletion regarding their personal data, and limits the “sale” of such information, which is also broadly construed to include making personal information available to third parties for valuable consideration. The CCPA established potentially severe statutory damages for businesses that fail to implement reasonable security measures to protect against breaches of personal information, and includes a broad private right of action available to affected consumers. The CCPA excludes data subject to the GLBA, discussed above under "Business – Regulation – U.S. Regulation” however, this is not an entity-wide exception. The breach of California consumers’ personal data, to the extent it involves data not covered by GLBA, represents a significant risk of liability.

Moreover, the legal landscape relating to data privacy and data protection is quickly evolving, which may increase operational and compliance costs associated with new or amended laws and regulations. For instance, since the CCPA was enacted in 2018, the California Attorney General has issued several draft implementing regulations, including following the CCPA coming into force in 2020. In November 2020, the California Privacy Rights Act, or the "CPRA," was approved by California voters to amend the CCPA and to establish a new data protection authority, the California Privacy Protection Agency, authorized to promulgate new data protection regulations and to enforce the law. Additionally, Virginia and Colorado enacted data privacy laws in 2021 that will come into effect in January 2023 and July 2023, respectively. These laws track significant portions of existing laws, such as General Data Protection Regulation ((EU) 2016/679), or the “GDPR,” and CCPA, but include differences that may or may not increase our compliance burden. Adapting our business and practices to the CCPA, as amended by the CPRA, and any forthcoming regulations and other state laws, may be burdensome and could involve substantial additional or diverted resources.

More broadly, the GDPR, which regulates data protection for all individuals within the EU, including foreign companies processing data of EU residents, became effective on May 25, 2018 and applies to all of our subsidiaries operating in the EU. In the U.K., the Data Protection Act 2018 and the U.K. General Data Protection Regulation, which is the retained EU law version of the GDPR by virtue of the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 and as amended by the Data Protection, Privacy and Electronic Communications (Amendments etc.) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019, together "U.K. GDPR,” regulates data protection for all individuals within the U.K. and applies to all of our subsidiaries operating in the U.K. The GDPR and the U.K. GDPR set out a number of requirements that must be complied with when handling the personal data of such EU and U.K. based data subjects respectively including: the obligation to appoint data protection officers in certain circumstances; rights for individuals to be “forgotten” and rights to data portability; the principal of accountability and the obligation to make public notification of significant data breaches. The GDPR and the U.K. GDPR include restrictions on transfers outside the U.K. and the European Economic Area, or the “EEA” (which includes Switzerland) and the requirement to include specific data protection provisions in

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agreements with data processors. The GDPR and the U.K. GDPR enhance individuals’ rights, introduces complex and far-reaching company obligations and increases penalties significantly in case of violation. The interpretation and application of data protection laws in the U.S., Europe and elsewhere are developing and are often uncertain and in flux, and any changes to the interpretation or application of the U.K. GDPR and the GDPR, and any resultant changes in U.K. or EU member states’ national laws and regulations, may increase our compliance obligations and costs and may necessitate the review and implementation of policies and processes relating to our collection and use of data. It is possible that these laws or cybersecurity regulations may be interpreted and applied in a manner that is inconsistent with our data protection or security practices.

Any person, including any of our employees, our subsidiaries’ employees or those with whom we share such information, who negligently disregards or intentionally breaches our established controls with respect to our client or employee data, or otherwise mismanages or misappropriates that data, could subject us to significant monetary damages, regulatory enforcement actions, fines and/or criminal prosecution in one or more jurisdictions. For example, the GDPR and the U.K. GDPR include sanctions for non-compliance, which could result in a penalty of up to the higher of (a) €20 million; and (b) 4 percent of a company’s global annual revenue for the preceding financial year for certain infringements, such as unlawful data transfer outside of the EEA or the U.K. Those monetary damages, penalties, regulatory or legal actions or defaults, or the damage to our businesses or reputation, could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition. Third parties to whom we outsource certain functions are also subject to these risks, and their failure to adhere to these laws and regulations also could damage our businesses or reputation or result in regulatory intervention, which could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition. In addition, a material data breach could result in negative publicity which could damage our reputation and have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. Although we have not experienced any material impact to the business or operations resulting from a material data breach, it is not possible to protect against every potential power loss, telecommunications failure, cybersecurity attack or breach or similar event that may arise and we may be impacted by such incidents in the future.

The impact of changes in current accounting practices and future pronouncements could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations and cash flows. Our financial statements are prepared in accordance with GAAP, which is periodically revised by the FASB, and they are subject to the accounting-related rules and interpretations of the SEC. We are required to adopt new and revised accounting standards implemented by the FASB. Unanticipated developments in accounting practices may require us to incur considerable additional time and expenses to comply with such developments, particularly if we are required to prepare information relating to prior periods for comparative purposes or to apply the new requirements retroactively. Changes in accounting principles, practices and standards, particularly those that apply to insurance or reinsurance businesses, also may affect our calculation of net earnings, shareholders’ equity and other financial statement line items. For a description of changes in accounting standards that are currently pending and, if known, our estimates of their expected impact, see Note 1(r) to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K.

Risk Factors Related to our Investments and Assets

The valuation of our investments includes methodologies, estimates and assumptions which are subject to differing interpretations or judgments; a change in interpretations or judgments could result in changes to investment valuations that may adversely affect our results of operations or financial condition. The vast majority of our investments are measured at fair value using methodologies, estimates and assumptions which are subject to differing interpretations or judgments. Financial instruments with quoted prices in active markets generally have more price observability and less judgment is used in measuring fair value. Conversely, financial instruments traded in other-than-active markets or that do not have quoted prices have less observability and are measured at fair value using valuation models or other pricing techniques that require more judgment. Investments recorded at fair value in the consolidated balance sheet are classified in a hierarchy for disclosure purposes consisting of three “levels” based on the observability of inputs available in the market used to measure the fair values.

Securities that are less liquid are more difficult to value and trade. During periods of market disruption, including periods of significantly rising or high interest rates, rapidly widening credit spreads or illiquidity, it may be difficult to value certain of the securities in our investment portfolio if trading becomes less frequent or market data becomes less observable. Certain asset classes in active markets with significant observable data may become illiquid due to changes in the financial environment. In such cases, valuing these securities may require more subjectivity and judgment. In addition, prices provided by third-party pricing services and broker quotes can vary widely even for the same security.

As such, valuations may include inputs and assumptions that are less observable or require greater estimation as well as valuation methods which are more sophisticated, thereby resulting in values which may be greater or less than the value at which the investments may be ultimately sold. Further, rapidly changing or strained credit and equity market conditions could materially impact the value of securities as reported within our consolidated financial statements and the period-to-period changes in value could vary significantly. Decreases in value may have a material adverse effect on our results of operations or financial condition.

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Our investments in debt and equity securities are subject to market fluctuations. As of December 31, 2021, our investments in debt securities were approximately $16.1 billion, or approximately 73.3 percent of our total investment portfolio, and our investments in equity securities had a fair value of approximately $3.7 billion, which represented approximately 16.8 percent of our investment portfolio. The fair value of these assets and the investment income from these assets fluctuate depending on general economic and market conditions.

With respect to our investments in debt securities, a rise in interest rates due to a rise in inflation and/or inflation expectations or other factors, would decrease unrealized gains and/or increase unrealized losses on our debt securities portfolio and potentially produce a net unrealized loss position, offset by our ability to earn higher rates of return on reinvested funds. Conversely, a decline in interest rates would increase unrealized gains and/or decrease unrealized losses on our debt securities portfolio, offset by lower rates of return on reinvested funds. Based upon the composition and duration of our investment portfolio as of December 31, 2021, a 100 basis point increase in interest rates would result in an approximate $713.1 million decrease in the fair value of our debt securities portfolio. In addition, some debt securities, such as mortgage-backed and other asset-backed securities, carry prepayment risk, the risk that principal will be returned more rapidly or slowly than expected, as a result of interest rate fluctuations.

With respect to our investments in equity securities, we consider all of our equity securities to be measured at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in net earnings. A significant reduction in the value of our investment portfolio could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Defaults, downgrades or other events impairing the value of our debt securities portfolio may reduce our earnings. We are subject to the risk that the issuers of debt securities we own may default on principal and interest payments they owe us. The occurrence of a major economic downturn, acts of corporate malfeasance, widening risk spreads or other events that adversely affect the issuers of these debt securities could cause the value of our debt securities portfolio and our net earnings to decline and the default rate of the debt securities in our investment portfolio to increase. In addition, with economic uncertainty, the credit quality of issuers could be adversely affected and a ratings downgrade of the issuers of the debt securities we own could also cause the value of our debt securities portfolio and our net earnings to decrease. Any event reducing the value of these securities other than on a temporary basis could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. We continually monitor the difference between cost and the estimated fair value of our investments in debt securities. If a decline in the value of a particular debt security is deemed to be temporary, we record the decline as an unrealized loss in stockholders’ equity. Credit losses for available for sale securities are recorded through an allowance for credit losses. Changes in the allowance for credit losses are recorded for (or as a reversal of) credit losses on available for sale securities, which may be material to our operating results.

Changes in foreign currency exchange rates could impact the value of our assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies. A principal exposure to foreign currency risk is our obligation to settle claims denominated in foreign currencies in the subject foreign currencies. The possibility exists that we may incur foreign currency exchange gains or losses when we ultimately settle these claims. To mitigate this risk, we maintain investments denominated in certain foreign currencies in which the claims payments will be made. To the extent we do not seek to hedge our foreign currency risk or our hedges prove ineffective, the resulting impact of a movement in foreign currency exchange rates could materially and adversely affect our results of operations or financial condition.

If any of our businesses do not perform well, we may be required to recognize an impairment of our assets, including goodwill or other intangible assets or to establish a valuation allowance against the deferred income tax asset, which could adversely affect our results of operations or financial condition. Goodwill represents the excess of the amount we paid to acquire subsidiaries and other businesses over the fair value of their net assets as of the date of acquisition. We test goodwill at least annually for impairment. Impairment testing is performed based upon estimates of the fair value of the operating subsidiary to which the goodwill relates. The fair value of the operating subsidiary is impacted by the performance of the business. The performance of our businesses may be adversely impacted by prolonged market declines. If we determine the goodwill has been impaired, we must write down the goodwill by the amount of the impairment, with a corresponding charge to net earnings. Such write-downs could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations or financial position. A decrease in the expected future earnings of an operating subsidiary could lead to an impairment of some or all of the goodwill or other long-lived intangible assets associated with such operating subsidiaries in future periods.

Deferred income tax represents the tax effect of the differences between the book and tax basis of assets and liabilities. Deferred tax assets are assessed periodically by management to determine if they are recoverable. Factors in management’s determination include the performance of the business including the ability to generate capital gains. If it is more likely than not that the deferred income tax asset will not be realized based on available information then a valuation allowance must be established with a corresponding charge to net earnings. Net earnings charges and reduced value of our net deferred tax assets could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations or financial position.

Deterioration of financial market conditions could result in the impairment of long-lived intangible assets and the establishment of a valuation allowance on our deferred income tax assets.

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Risks Related to our Senior Notes and the Credit Agreement

Our failure to comply with restrictive covenants contained in the indentures governing the Senior Notes (as defined on page 103 of this Form 10-K) or any other indebtedness, including indebtedness under our revolving credit facility and any future indebtedness, could trigger prepayment obligations, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. The indentures governing the Senior Notes contain covenants that impose restrictions on Alleghany and TransRe with respect to, among other things, the incurrence of liens on the capital stock of certain of our subsidiaries. In addition, the indentures governing the Senior Notes contain certain other covenants, including covenants to timely pay principal and interest, and the Credit Agreement (as defined on page 101 of this Form 10-K) also requires us to comply with certain covenants. Our failure to comply with such covenants could result in an event of default under the indentures, under the Credit Agreement or under any other debt agreement we may enter into in the future, which could, if not cured or waived, result in us being required to repay the Senior Notes, the indebtedness under the Credit Agreement or any other future indebtedness. As a result, our business, financial condition, results of operations and liquidity could be adversely affected.

To service our debt, we will require a significant amount of cash, which may not be available to us. Our ability to make payments on, or repay or refinance, our debt, including the Senior Notes, will depend largely upon the future performance and use of our investment portfolio and our future operating performance, including the operating performance of our subsidiaries. Our future performance, to a certain extent, is subject to general economic, financial, competitive, legislative, regulatory and other factors that are beyond our control. In addition, our ability to borrow funds in the future will depend on the satisfaction of the covenants in the indentures governing the Senior Notes, in the Credit Agreement and in other debt agreements we may enter into in the future. Under the Credit Agreement, we also need to maintain certain financial ratios. We cannot assure you that our business, including the operating performance of our subsidiaries, will generate sufficient cash flow from operations or that future borrowings will be available to us under the Credit Agreement or from other sources in an amount sufficient to enable us to pay our debt, including the Senior Notes, or to fund our other liquidity needs.

Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments.

None.

Item 2. Properties.

The principal executive offices of Alleghany, Alleghany Capital and Roundwood are located in leased office space in New York, New York. TransRe leases office space in New York, New York for its headquarters and office space for its locations around the world. RSUI leases office space in Atlanta, Georgia for its headquarters and office space in Sherman Oaks, California. CapSpecialty leases office space in Hartford, Connecticut for its headquarters and office space in New York, New York, Middleton, Wisconsin and other locations throughout the U.S. PCT owns its principal offices and manufacturing facilities, which are located in Rockford, Illinois and leases certain offices and manufacturing facilities, which are located in Olympia, Washington, Saco, Maine and Berlin, Connecticut. Kentucky Trailer leases its principal offices and manufacturing facilities, which are located in Louisville, Kentucky, and has additional leased manufacturing facilities in locations throughout the U.S. and in the Netherlands. IPS leases office space in Blue Bell, Pennsylvania for its headquarters and office space in its locations around the world. Jazwares owns and leases office space in Sunrise, Florida for its headquarters and other locations around the world. W&W|AFCO Steel owns its principal office in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma for its headquarters and owns its principal facilities, which are located throughout the U.S. Concord leases office space in Raleigh, North Carolina for its headquarters. Wilbert leases office space in Overland Park, Kansas for its headquarters and owns and leases facilities at locations around the U.S. Piedmont leases office space in Belmont, North Carolina for its headquarters and leases facilities at several locations around the U.S. Alleghany Properties leases office space in Sacramento, California. Management considers its facilities suitable and adequate for the current level of operations. See Note 12(b) to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for additional information on our leases.

Item 3. Legal Proceedings.

Certain of our subsidiaries are parties to pending litigation and claims in connection with the ordinary course of their businesses. Each such subsidiary makes provisions for estimated losses to be incurred in such litigation and claims, including legal costs. We believe such provisions are adequate and do not believe that any pending litigation will have a material adverse effect on our consolidated results of operations, financial position or cash flows.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures.

Not applicable.

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PART II

Item 5. Market for Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities.

Market Information, Holders and Dividends

Our common stock trades under the symbol “Y” on the New York Stock Exchange.

As of February 13, 2022, there were approximately 451 holders of record of our common stock. This figure does not represent the actual number of beneficial owners of our common stock because such stock is frequently held in “street name” by securities dealers and others for the benefit of individual owners who may vote the shares.

In February 2020, the Alleghany Board of Directors declared a special dividend of $15.00 per share for stockholders of record on March 5, 2020. On March 16, 2020, we paid dividends to stockholders totaling $215.0 million. Any future determination to pay dividends to holders of our common stock will be at the discretion of our Board of Directors and will be dependent upon many factors, including our earnings, financial condition, business needs and growth objectives, capital and surplus requirements of our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries, regulatory restrictions, rating agency considerations and other factors.

Repurchases of Equity Securities

The following table presents our common stock repurchases in the quarter ended December 31, 2021:

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Performance Graph

The following information is not deemed to be “soliciting material” or to be “filed” with the SEC or subject to the liabilities of Section 18 of the Exchange Act, and the information shall not be deemed to be incorporated by reference in any filing by us under the Securities Act of 1933 or the Exchange Act, whether made before or after the date hereof and irrespective of any general incorporation language in any such filing.

The following graph presents (i) the cumulative total stockholder return on our common stock; (ii) the cumulative total return on the Standard & Poor’s 500 Stock Index, or the “S&P 500 Index;” and (iii) the cumulative total return on the BI Global P&C Reinsurance Competitive Peer Group Index, or the “Bloomberg Reinsurance Index,” for the five year period beginning on December 31, 2016 through December 31, 2021. The graph assumes that the value of the investment was $100.00 on December 31, 2016.

The graph and table above are based on the assumption that cash dividends are reinvested on the ex-dividend date in respect of such dividend.

Item 6. [Reserved]

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The following is a discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations for the twelve months ended December 31, 2021, 2020 and 2019. This discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with our audited consolidated financial statements and Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K. This discussion contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties and that are not historical facts, including statements about our beliefs and expectations. Our actual results could differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements as a result of various factors, including those discussed below and particularly under the headings “Risk Factors,” “Business” and “Note on Forward-Looking Statements” contained in Item 1A, Item 1, and Part I of this Form 10-K, respectively.

Comment on Non-GAAP Financial Measures

Throughout this Form 10-K, our analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based on our consolidated financial statements which have been prepared in accordance with GAAP. Our results of operations have been presented in the way that we believe will be the most meaningful and useful to investors, analysts, rating agencies and others who use financial information in evaluating our performance. This presentation includes the use of underwriting profit and adjusted earnings before income taxes, which are “non-GAAP financial measures,” as such term is defined in Item 10(e) of Regulation S-K promulgated by the SEC. The presentation of these financial measures is not intended to be considered in isolation or as a substitute for, or superior to, financial information prepared and presented in accordance with GAAP. These measures may also be different from non-GAAP financial measures used by other companies, limiting their usefulness for comparison purposes. A discussion of our calculation and use of these financial measures is provided below.

Underwriting profit is a non-GAAP financial measure for our reinsurance and insurance segments. Underwriting profit represents net premiums earned less net loss and LAE and commissions, brokerage and other underwriting expenses, all as determined in accordance with GAAP and does not include: (i) net investment income; (ii) change in the fair value of equity securities; (iii) net realized capital gains; (iv) change in allowance for credit losses on available for sale securities; (v) product and service revenues; (vi) other operating expenses; (vii) corporate administration; (viii) amortization of intangible assets; and (ix) interest expense. We use underwriting profit as a supplement to earnings before income taxes, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, to evaluate the performance of our reinsurance and insurance segments and believe that underwriting profit provides useful additional information to investors because it highlights net earnings attributable to our reinsurance and insurance segments’ underwriting performance. Earnings before income taxes may show a profit despite an underlying underwriting loss, and when underwriting losses persist over extended periods, a reinsurance or an insurance company’s ability to continue as an ongoing concern may be at risk. A reconciliation of underwriting profit to earnings before income taxes is presented within “Consolidated Results of Operations.”

Adjusted earnings before income taxes is a non-GAAP financial measure for our Alleghany Capital segment. Adjusted earnings before income taxes represents product and service revenues and net investment income less other operating expenses and interest expense, and does not include: (i) change in the fair value of equity securities; (ii) net realized capital gains; (iii) change in allowance for credit losses on available for sale securities; and (iv) amortization of intangible assets. Because adjusted earnings before income taxes excludes amortization of intangible assets, change in the fair value of equity securities, net realized capital gains and change in allowance for credit losses on available for sale securities, it provides an indication of economic performance that is not affected by levels of amortization resulting from acquisition accounting or effective tax rates. We use adjusted earnings before income taxes as a supplement to earnings before income taxes, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, to evaluate the performance of certain of our noninsurance operating subsidiaries and investments. A reconciliation of adjusted earnings before income taxes to earnings before income taxes is presented within “Consolidated Results of Operations.”

Overview

The following overview does not address all of the matters covered in the other sections of Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations or contain all of the information that may be important to our stockholders or the investing public. This overview should be read in conjunction with the other sections of Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

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As of December 31, 2021, we had total assets of $32.3 billion and total stockholders’ equity attributable to Alleghany stockholders of $9.2 billion. As of December 31, 2021, we had consolidated total investments of approximately $21.9 billion, consisting of $16.1 billion invested in debt securities, $3.7 billion invested in equity securities, $0.5 billion invested in commercial mortgage loans, $1.1 billion invested in short-term investments and $0.5 billion invested in other invested assets.

The ongoing Pandemic has significantly disrupted many aspects of society as well as financial markets, and has caused widespread global economic dislocation. We began to experience a negative impact on our results of operations arising from the Pandemic in the first quarter of 2020 and that impact continued throughout 2020 and, to a lesser extent, 2021. Among other impacts on the economy, the Pandemic adversely impacted financial markets in 2020, which in turn impacted our investment portfolio. These impacts are more fully described below, as well as a recovery in the financial markets in the latter half of 2020 that continued through 2021.

Since early 2020 through December 31, 2021, our reinsurance and insurance segments have incurred significant losses from the Pandemic (in total $428.9 million), almost all of which was incurred in 2020. We incurred $13.7 million of net unfavorable prior accident year Pandemic loss reserve development in 2021, all at TransRe, compared with $415.2 million of Pandemic-related catastrophe losses in 2020, mostly at TransRe. The Pandemic losses incurred at TransRe included those from event cancellation coverage for conferences and sporting events as well as other property coverages and, to a lesser extent, the accident and health and trade credit lines of business. Our Pandemic loss estimates were based on information available at the time to us, including an analysis of reported claims, an underwriting review of in-force contracts and other factors requiring considerable judgment. Our loss estimates for Pandemic losses do not reflect judicial, legislative and regulatory risk that could expand coverage beyond the terms of our treaty and policy language, although they do reflect provisions for related legal expenses. We cannot reasonably estimate the length or severity of the Pandemic, or the extent to which the related disruption may adversely impact our results of operations, financial position and cash flows. Widespread vaccine rollouts in the U.S. occurred in early 2021 and are continuing, however, new variants of the virus have emerged. Such potential adverse impacts of a prolonged Pandemic on our operations, financial position and cash flows include declines in our equity securities portfolio, additional credit-related realized and unrealized losses on our debt securities and commercial mortgage portfolios, additional credit losses on our reinsurance recoverables and other receivables, further losses from coverages from our reinsurance and insurance subsidiaries, increased litigation and impairment of certain Alleghany Capital subsidiary goodwill and intangible assets.

Aside from the Pandemic, our reinsurance and insurance segments incurred significant weather and other catastrophe losses. More specifically, in 2021:

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In 2020:

In 2019:

Our loss estimates for all of these catastrophes were based on information available at the time, including an analysis of reported claims, an underwriting review of in-force contracts, estimates of losses resulting from wind and other perils, including storm surge and flooding to the extent covered by applicable policies, and other factors requiring considerable judgment.

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The following table presents the impact of our catastrophe losses, net of reinsurance, for 2021, 2020 and 2019:

(1) Represents an increase in net premiums earned.

Our catastrophe losses are more fully described on pages 78, 79, 84 and 85. In addition to catastrophe losses in the current accident year, we report both favorable and unfavorable prior accident year loss reserve development related to catastrophes. See Note 6 to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for information on our prior accident year catastrophe loss reserve development.

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Consolidated Results of Operations

The following table presents our consolidated revenues, costs and expenses and earnings:

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Alleghany’s segments are reported in a manner consistent with the way management evaluates the businesses. As such, Alleghany classifies its businesses into three reportable segments – reinsurance, insurance and Alleghany Capital. Corporate activities are not classified as a segment.

See Note 13 to Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Part II, Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of this Form 10-K for additional information on our segments and corporate activities. The tables below present the results for our segments and for corporate activities for 2021, 2020 and 2019: