First American Financial Corp - Annual Report: 2016 (Form 10-K)

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2016

OR

For the transition period from              to             

Commission file number 001-34580

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

1 First American Way, Santa Ana, California 92707-5913

(Address of principal executive offices) (Zip Code)

(714) 250-3000

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act:

None

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act.    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically and posted on its corporate Web site, if any, every Interactive Data File required to be submitted and posted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit and post such files).    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark if disclosure of delinquent filers pursuant to Item 405 of Regulation S-K (§ 229.405) is not contained herein, and will not be contained, to the best of registrant’s knowledge, in definitive proxy or information statements incorporated by reference in Part III of this Form 10-K or any amendment to this Form 10-K.  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, or a smaller reporting company. See definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer” and “smaller reporting company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Act).    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

The aggregate market value of voting and non-voting common equity held by non-affiliates of the registrant as of June 30, 2016 was $4,346,358,102.

On February 10, 2017, there were 109,966,920 shares of common stock outstanding.

DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

Portions of the registrant’s definitive proxy statement with respect to the 2017 annual meeting of the stockholders are incorporated by reference in Part III of this report. The definitive proxy statement or an amendment to this Form 10-K will be filed no later than 120 days after the close of registrant’s fiscal year.

FIRST AMERICAN FINANCIAL CORPORATION

AND SUBSIDIARY COMPANIES

INFORMATION INCLUDED IN REPORT

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 THIS ANNUAL REPORT ON FORM 10-K CONTAINS FORWARD LOOKING STATEMENTS WITHIN THE MEANING OF SECTION 27A OF THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933, AS AMENDED, AND SECTION 21E OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934, AS AMENDED. THESE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS CAN BE IDENTIFIED BY THE FACT THAT THEY DO NOT RELATE STRICTLY TO HISTORICAL OR CURRENT FACTS AND MAY CONTAIN THE WORDS “BELIEVE,” “ANTICIPATE,” “EXPECT,” “INTEND,” “PLAN,” “PREDICT,” “ESTIMATE,” “PROJECT,” “WILL BE,” “WILL CONTINUE,” “WILL LIKELY RESULT,” OR OTHER SIMILAR WORDS AND PHRASES OR FUTURE OR CONDITIONAL VERBS SUCH AS “WILL,” “MAY,” “MIGHT,” “SHOULD,” “WOULD,” OR “COULD.” THESE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS INCLUDE, WITHOUT LIMITATION, STATEMENTS REGARDING FUTURE OPERATIONS, PERFORMANCE, FINANCIAL CONDITION, PROSPECTS, PLANS AND STRATEGIES. THESE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS ARE BASED ON CURRENT EXPECTATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS THAT MAY PROVE TO BE INCORRECT.

RISKS AND UNCERTAINTIES EXIST THAT MAY CAUSE RESULTS TO DIFFER MATERIALLY FROM THOSE SET FORTH IN THESE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS. FACTORS THAT COULD CAUSE THE ANTICIPATED RESULTS TO DIFFER FROM THOSE DESCRIBED IN THE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS INCLUDE, WITHOUT LIMITATION:

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THE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS SPEAK ONLY AS OF THE DATE THEY ARE MADE. THE COMPANY DOES NOT UNDERTAKE TO UPDATE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS TO REFLECT CIRCUMSTANCES OR EVENTS THAT OCCUR AFTER THE DATE THE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS ARE MADE.

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PART I

The Company

First American Financial Corporation (the “Company”) was incorporated in the state of Delaware in January 2008 to hold the financial services businesses of the Company’s prior parent. On June 1, 2010, the Company’s common stock was listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol “FAF.” The businesses operated by the Company’s subsidiaries have, in some instances, been in existence since the late 1800s.

The Company has its executive offices at 1 First American Way, Santa Ana, California 92707-5913. The Company’s telephone number is (714) 250-3000.

General

The Company, through its subsidiaries, is engaged in the business of providing financial services through its title insurance and services segment and its specialty insurance segment. The title insurance and services segment provides title insurance, closing and/or escrow services and similar or related services domestically and internationally in connection with residential and commercial real estate transactions. It also provides products, services and solutions involving the use of real property related data, including data derived from its proprietary database, which are designed to mitigate risk or otherwise facilitate real estate transactions. It maintains, manages and provides access to title plant records and images and, in addition, provides banking, trust, document custodial and investment advisory services. The specialty insurance segment issues property and casualty insurance policies and sells home warranty products. In addition, our corporate function consists of certain financing facilities as well as the corporate services that support our business operations. Financial information regarding these business segments and the corporate function is included in “Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and “Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of Part II of this report.

The substantial majority of our business is dependent upon activity in the real estate and mortgage markets, which are cyclical and seasonal. In the current market environment, we are focused on growing our core title insurance and settlement services business, strengthening our enterprise through data and process advantage and managing and actively investing in complementary businesses that support our core title and settlement services business. We are also focused on continued improvement of our customers’ experiences with our products, services and solutions, and we remain committed to efficiently managing our business to market conditions throughout business cycles.

Title Insurance and Services Segment

Our title insurance and services segment issues title insurance policies on residential and commercial property in the United States and offers similar or related products and services internationally. This segment also provides closing and/or escrow services; accommodates tax-deferred exchanges of real estate; provides products, services and solutions involving the use of real property related data designed to mitigate risk or otherwise facilitate real estate transactions; maintains, manages and provides access to title plant records and images; provides evidence of title; and provides banking, trust, document custodial and investment advisory services. In 2016, 2015, and 2014 the Company derived 92.1%, 92.5% and 92.0% of its consolidated revenues, respectively, from this segment.  

Overview of Title Insurance Industry

In most instances mortgage lenders and purchasers of real estate desire to be protected from loss or damage in the event of defects in the title they acquire. Title insurance is a means of providing such protection.

Title Policies.    Title insurance policies insure the interests of owners or lenders against defects in the title to real property. These defects include adverse ownership claims, liens, encumbrances or other matters affecting title. Title insurance policies generally are issued on the basis of a title report, which is typically prepared after a search of one or more of public records, maps, documents and prior title policies to ascertain the existence of easements, restrictions, rights of way, conditions, encumbrances or other matters affecting the title to, or use of, real property. In certain limited instances, a visual inspection of the property is also made. To facilitate the preparation of title reports, copies and/or abstracts of public records, maps, documents and prior title policies may be compiled and indexed to specific properties in an area. This compilation is known as a “title plant.”

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The beneficiaries of title insurance policies usually are real estate buyers and mortgage lenders. A title insurance policy indemnifies the named insured and certain successors in interest against title defects, liens and encumbrances existing as of the date of the policy and not specifically excepted from its provisions. The policy typically provides coverage for the real property mortgage lender in the amount of its outstanding mortgage loan balance and for the buyer in the amount of the purchase price of the property. In some cases the policy might provide insurance in a greater amount, such as where the buyer anticipates constructing improvements on the property. In addition, certain homeowner’s policies provide inflation coverage which could increase the coverage amount above the purchase price of the underlying property by a specified amount. The potential for claims under a title insurance policy issued to a mortgage lender generally ceases upon repayment of the mortgage loan. The potential for claims under a title insurance policy issued to a buyer generally ceases upon the sale or transfer of the insured property.

Before issuing title policies, title insurers typically seek to limit their risk of loss by accurately performing title searches and examinations and, in many instances, curing title defects identified therein.  These searches, examinations and curative efforts distinguish title insurers from other insurers, such as property and casualty insurers.  Whereas title insurers generally insure against losses arising out of circumstances existing as of the date of the policy, property and casualty insurers generally insure against losses arising out of events that occur subsequent to policy issuance.  As a result of these differences, title insurers typically experience relatively low claims, as a percentage of premiums, when compared to property and casualty insurers, but have relatively high expenses.  The primary costs of a title insurer pertain to personnel and other costs associated with the search and examination process, the curative process, the preparation of preliminary reports or commitments, title plant maintenance, and sales, as well as technology and other administrative expenses.

The Closing Process.    Title insurance is essential to the real estate closing process in most transactions involving real property mortgage lenders. In a typical residential real estate sale transaction where title insurance is issued, a real estate broker, lawyer, developer, lender, closer or other participant involved in the transaction orders the title insurance on behalf of an insured. Once the order has been placed, a title insurance company or an agent typically conducts a title search to determine the current status of the title to the property. When the search is complete, the title insurer or agent prepares, issues and circulates a commitment or preliminary report to the parties to the transaction. The commitment or preliminary report identifies the conditions, exceptions and/or limitations that the title insurer intends to attach to the policy and identifies items appearing on the title that must be eliminated prior to closing.

The closing or settlement function, sometimes called an escrow in the western United States, is, depending on the local custom in the region, performed by a lawyer, an escrow company or a title insurance company or agent, generally referred to as a “closer.” Once documentation has been prepared and signed, and any required mortgage lender payoff demands are obtained, the transaction closes. The closer typically records the appropriate title documents and arranges the transfer of funds to pay off prior loans and extinguish the liens securing such loans. Title policies are then issued, typically insuring the priority of the mortgage of the real property mortgage lender in the amount of its mortgage loan and the buyer in the amount of the purchase price. The time between the opening of the title order and the issuance of the title policy is usually between 30 and 90 days. Before a closing takes place, however, the closer typically requests that the title insurer or agent provide an update to the commitment to discover any adverse matters affecting title and, if any are found, works with the seller to eliminate them so that the title insurer or agent issues the title policy subject only to those exceptions to coverage which are acceptable to the title insurer, the buyer and the buyer’s lender.

Issuing the Policy: Direct vs. Agency.    A title insurance policy can be issued directly by a title insurer or indirectly on behalf of a title insurer through agents, which usually operate independently of the title insurer and often issue policies for more than one insurer. Where the policy is issued by a title insurer, the search is performed by or on behalf of the title insurer, and the premium is collected and retained by the title insurer. Where the policy is issued by an agent, the search is typically performed by or on behalf of the agent, and the agent collects, and retains a portion of, the premium. The agent remits the remainder of the premium to the title insurer as compensation for the insurer bearing the risk of loss in the event a claim is made under the policy and for other services the insurer may provide. The percentage of the premium retained by an agent varies from region to region. A title insurer is obligated to pay title claims in accordance with the terms of its policies, regardless of whether it issues its policy directly or indirectly through an agent. In addition, as part of the policy, a title insurer may issue a closing protection letter that protects a lender from certain misuse of funds by the title insurer’s agent. When a loss to the title insurer occurs under a policy issued through an agent or a closing protection letter, under certain circumstances the title insurer may seek recovery of all or a portion of the loss from the agent or the agent’s errors and omissions insurance carrier.

Premiums.    The premium for title insurance is typically due and earned in full when the real estate transaction is closed. Premiums generally are calculated with reference to the policy amount. The premium charged by a title insurer or an agent is subject to regulation in most areas. Such regulations vary from state to state.

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Our Title Insurance Operations

Overview.     We conduct our title insurance and closing business through a network of direct operations and agents. Through this network, we issue policies in the 49 states that permit the issuance of title insurance policies and the District of Columbia. We also offer title insurance, closing services and similar or related products and services, either directly or through third parties in other countries, including Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, South Korea and various other established and emerging markets as described in the “International Operations” section below.

Customers, Sales and Marketing.  The mortgage market in the United States is concentrated. We believe that the top five mortgage lenders by volume collectively originate or are involved in approximately 30% of the mortgage origination volume in the United States. These institutions purchase title insurance policies and other products and services from us. These institutions also benefit from our products and services which are purchased for their benefit by others, such as title insurance policies purchased by borrowers as a condition to the making of a loan. The refusal of one or more of these or other significant lending institutions to purchase products and services from us or to accept our products and services that are to be purchased for their benefit could have a material adverse effect on the title insurance and services segment.

We distribute our title insurance policies and related products and services through our direct and agent channels. In our direct channel, the distribution of our policies and related products and services occurs through sales representatives located at numerous offices throughout the United States where real estate transactions are handled. Title insurance policies issued and other products and services delivered through this channel are primarily delivered in connection with sales and refinances of residential and commercial real property.

Within the direct channel, our sales and marketing efforts are focused on the primary sources of business referrals. For residential business referred by local or decentralized customers, we market to real estate agents and brokers, mortgage brokers, real estate attorneys, mortgage originators, homebuilders and escrow service providers. For refinance and default related business referred by customers with centrally managed platforms, we market to mortgage originators, servicers, and government-sponsored enterprises. For the commercial business we market primarily to commercial real estate investors, including real estate investment trusts, insurance companies and asset managers, as well as to law firms, commercial banks, investment banks, mortgage brokers and the owners of commercial real estate. We also market directly to national homebuilders focused on newly constructed residential property. In some instances we may supplement the efforts of our sales force with general marketing. Our marketing efforts emphasize our product offerings, the quality and timeliness of our services, our financial strength, process innovation and our national presence. We also provide educational information on our website and through other means to help consumers better understand our services and the homebuying/settlement process in general.

Underwriting. Before a title insurance policy is issued, a number of underwriting decisions are made. For example, matters of record revealed during the title search may require a determination as to whether an exception should be taken in the policy. We believe that it is important for the underwriting function to operate efficiently and effectively at all decision-making levels so that transactions may proceed in a timely manner. To perform this function, we have underwriters at the regional, divisional and corporate levels with varying levels of underwriting authority.

Agency Operations. As described above, we also issue title insurance policies through a network of agents. Our agreements with our issuing agents typically state the conditions under which the agent is authorized to issue our title insurance policies. The agency agreement also typically prescribes the circumstances under which the agent may be liable to us if a policy loss occurs. Such agency agreements typically are terminable without cause after a specified notice period has been met and are terminable immediately for cause. As is standard in our industry, our agents typically operate with a substantial degree of independence from us and frequently act as agents for other title insurers. We evaluate the profitability of our agency relationships on an ongoing basis, including a review of premium splits, deductibles and claims. As a result, from time to time we may terminate or renegotiate the terms of some of our agency relationships.

In determining whether to engage an independent agent, we often obtain information about the agent, including the agent’s experience and background. We maintain loss experience records for each agent and also maintain agent representatives and agent auditors. Our agents typically are subject to audit or examination. In addition to routine examinations, other examinations may be triggered if certain “warning signs” are evident. Adverse findings in an agency audit may result in various actions, including, if warranted, termination of the agency relationship.

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International Operations.   We provide products and services in a number of countries outside of the United States, and our international operations accounted for approximately 5.9% of our title insurance and services segment revenues in 2016. Today we have direct operations and a physical presence in several countries, including Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia. While reliable data are not available, we believe that we have the largest market share for title insurance outside of the United States. The Company’s revenues from external customers and long-lived assets are broken down between domestic and foreign operations in Note 21 Segment Financial Information to the consolidated financial statements included in “Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of Part II of this report.

Our range of international products and services is designed to lower our clients’ risk profiles and reduce their operating costs through enhanced operational efficiencies. In established markets, primarily British Commonwealth countries, we have combined title insurance with customized processing offerings to enhance the speed and efficiency of the mortgage and conveyancing processes. In these markets we also offer products designed to mitigate risk and otherwise facilitate real estate transactions.

Our international operations present risks that may not exist to the same extent in our domestic operations, including those associated with differences in the nature of the products provided, the scope of coverage provided by those products and the manner in which risk is underwritten. Limited claims experience in certain foreign jurisdictions makes it more difficult to set prices and reserve rates. There may also be risks associated with differences in legal systems and/or unforeseen regulatory changes.

Title Plants.   Our collection of data and records on, or which impact, title to property – known as title plants – constitutes one of our principal assets. A title search is typically conducted by searching the abstracted information from public records or utilizing a title plant holding information abstracted from public records. While public title records generally are indexed by reference to the names of the parties to a given recorded document, our title plants primarily arrange their records on a geographic basis. Because of this difference, title plant records generally may be searched more effectively, which we believe reduces the risk of errors associated with the search. Many of our title plants also index prior policies, adding to searching efficiency. Certain locations utilize jointly owned plants or utilize a plant under a joint user agreement with other title companies. In addition to these ownership interests, we are in the business of maintaining, managing and providing access to title plant records and images that may be owned by us or other parties. We believe that our title plants, whether wholly or partially owned or utilized under a joint user agreement, are among the most comprehensive in the industry.

Reserves for Claims and Losses.    We provide for losses associated with title insurance policies, closing protection letters and other risk based products based upon our historical experience and other factors by a charge to expense when the related premium revenue is recognized. The resulting reserve for incurred but not reported claims, together with the reserve for known claims, reflects management’s best estimate of the total costs required to settle all claims reported to us and claims incurred but not reported, and are considered to be adequate for such purpose. Each period the reasonableness of the estimated reserves is assessed; if the estimate requires adjustment, such an adjustment is recorded.

Reinsurance and Coinsurance.    We plan to continue our practice of assuming and ceding large title insurance risks through reinsurance. In reinsurance arrangements, the primary insurer retains a certain amount of risk under a policy and cedes the remainder of the risk under the policy to the reinsurer. The primary insurer pays the reinsurer a premium in exchange for accepting this risk of loss. The primary insurer generally remains liable to its insured for the total risk, but is reinsured under the terms of the reinsurance agreement. Prior to 2010, our title reinsurance arrangements primarily involved other industry participants. Beginning in January of 2010, we established a global reinsurance program involving treaty reinsurance provided by a global syndicate of highly rated non-industry reinsurers. Subject to the treaty limits and certain other limitations, the program generally covers claims made while the program is in effect.

We also serve as a coinsurer in connection with certain commercial transactions. In a coinsurance scenario, two or more insurers are selected by the insured and each coinsurer is liable for its specified percentage share of the total liability.

Competition.     The business of providing title insurance and related products and services is highly competitive. The number of competing companies and the size of such companies vary in the different areas in which we conduct business. Generally, in areas of major real estate activity, such as metropolitan and suburban localities, we compete with many other title insurers and agents. Our major nationwide competitors in our principal markets include Fidelity National Financial, Inc., Stewart Title Guaranty Company, Old Republic International Corporation and their affiliates. In addition to these national competitors, small nationwide, regional and local competitors, as well as numerous agency operations throughout the country, provide aggressive competition on the local level. We are currently the second largest provider of title insurance in the United States, based on the most recent American Land Title Association market share data.

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We believe that competition for title insurance, closing services and related products and services is based primarily on quality, price, customer relationships and the timeliness of the delivery of our products. Customer service is an important competitive factor because parties to real estate transactions are usually concerned with time schedules and costs associated with delays in closing transactions. In certain transactions, such as those involving commercial properties, financial strength and scope of coverage are also important. In addition, we regularly evaluate our pricing and agent splits, and based on competitive, market and regulatory conditions and claims history, among other factors, adjust our prices and agent splits as and where appropriate.

Trust and Investment Advisory Services.   Our federal savings bank subsidiary offers trust and investment advisory services, deposit services and asset management services.  As of December 31, 2016 this company administered fiduciary and custodial assets having a market value in excess of $3.1 billion which includes managed assets of $1.4 billion, and had assets of $3.1 billion, deposits of $2.9 billion and stockholder’s equity of $237.0 million.  

Specialty Insurance Segment

Property and Casualty Insurance.   Our property and casualty insurance business provides insurance coverage to residential homeowners and renters for liability losses and typical hazards such as fire, theft, vandalism and other types of property damage. We are licensed to issue policies in all 50 states and the District of Columbia and actively issue policies in 47 states. The majority of policy liability is in the western United States, including approximately 63% in California. In certain markets we also offer preferred risk auto insurance to better compete with other carriers offering bundled home and auto insurance. We market our property and casualty insurance business using both direct distribution channels, including cross-selling through our existing closing-service activities, and through a network of independent brokers. We purchase reinsurance to limit risk associated with large losses from single events.

Home Warranties.   Our home warranty business provides residential service contracts that cover residential systems, such as heating and air conditioning systems, and certain appliances against failures that occur as the result of normal usage during the coverage period. Coverage is typically for one year and is renewable annually at the option of the contract holder and upon our approval. Coverage and pricing typically vary by geographic region. Fees for the warranties generally are paid at the closing of the home purchase or directly by the consumer. Renewal premiums may be paid by a number of different options. In addition, under the contract, the holder is responsible for a service fee for each trade call. First year warranties primarily are marketed through real estate brokers and agents, and we also increasingly market directly to consumers. We generally sell renewals directly to consumers. Our home warranty business currently operates in 39 states and the District of Columbia.

Corporate

The Company’s corporate function consists primarily of certain financing facilities as well as the corporate services that support our business operations.

Regulation

Many of our subsidiaries are subject to extensive regulation by applicable domestic or foreign regulatory agencies. The extent of such regulation varies based on the industry involved, the nature of the business conducted by the subsidiary (for example, licensed title insurers are subject to a heightened level of regulation compared to underwritten title companies or agencies), the subsidiary’s jurisdiction of organization and the jurisdictions in which it operates. In addition, the Company is subject to regulation as both an insurance holding company and a savings and loan holding company.

Our domestic subsidiaries that operate in the title insurance industry or the property and casualty insurance industry are subject to regulation by state insurance regulators. Each of our underwriters, or insurers, is regulated primarily by the insurance department or equivalent governmental body within the jurisdiction of its organization, which oversees compliance with the laws and regulations pertaining to such insurer. For example, our primary title insurance underwriter, First American Title Insurance Company, is a Nebraska corporation and, accordingly, is primarily regulated by the Nebraska Department of Insurance. Insurance regulations pertaining to insurers typically place limits on, among other matters, the ability of the insurer to pay dividends to its parent company or to enter into transactions with affiliates. They also may require approval of the insurance commissioner prior to a third party directly or indirectly acquiring “control” of the insurer.

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In addition, our insurers are subject to the laws of other jurisdictions in which they transact business, which laws typically establish supervisory agencies with broad administrative powers relating to issuing and revoking licenses to transact business, regulating trade practices, licensing agents, approving policy forms, accounting practices and financial practices, establishing requirements pertaining to reserves and capital and surplus as regards policyholders, requiring the deferral of a portion of all premiums in a reserve for the protection of policyholders and the segregation of investments in a corresponding amount, establishing parameters regarding suitable investments for reserves, capital and surplus, and approving rate schedules. The manner in which rates are established or changed ranges from states which promulgate rates, to states where individual companies or associations of companies prepare rate filings which are submitted for approval, to a few states in which rate changes do not need to be filed for approval. In addition, each of our insurers is subject to periodic examination by regulatory authorities both within its jurisdiction of organization as well as the other jurisdictions where it is licensed to conduct business.

Our foreign insurance subsidiaries are regulated primarily by regulatory authorities in the regions, provinces and/or countries in which they operate and may secondarily be regulated by the domestic regulator of First American Title Insurance Company as a part of the First American insurance holding company system. Each of these regions, provinces and countries has established a regulatory framework with respect to the oversight of compliance with its laws and regulations. Therefore, our foreign insurance subsidiaries generally are subject to regulatory review, examination, investigation and enforcement in a similar manner as our domestic insurance subsidiaries, subject to local variations.

Our underwritten title companies, agencies and property and casualty insurance agencies are also subject to certain regulation by insurance regulatory or banking authorities, including, but not limited to, minimum net worth requirements, licensing requirements, statistical reporting requirements, rate filing requirements and marketing restrictions.

In addition to state-level regulation, our domestic subsidiaries that operate in the insurance business, as well as our home warranty and banking subsidiaries and other subsidiaries, are subject to regulation by federal agencies, including the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (“CFPB”). The CFPB has broad authority to regulate, among other areas, the mortgage and real estate markets, including our domestic subsidiaries, in matters which impact consumers. This authority includes the enforcement of federal consumer financial laws, including the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act. Regulations issued by the CFPB, or the manner in which it interprets and enforces existing consumer protection laws, have impacted and could continue to impact the way in which we conduct our businesses and the profitability of those businesses.

In addition, our home warranty and settlement services businesses are subject to regulation in some states by insurance authorities or other applicable regulatory entities. Our federal savings bank is regulated by the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, with the Federal Reserve Board supervising its parent holding company, and is subject to regulation by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.

Investment Policies

The Company’s investment portfolio activities such as policy setting, compliance reporting, portfolio reviews, and strategy are overseen by an investment committee made up of certain senior executives. Additionally, certain of the Company’s regulated subsidiaries have established and maintain investment committees to oversee their own investment portfolios. The Company’s investment policies are designed to comply with regulatory requirements and to align the investment portfolio asset allocation with strategic objectives. For example, our federal savings bank is required to maintain at least 65% of its asset portfolio in loans or securities that are secured by real estate. Our federal savings bank currently does not make real estate loans, and therefore fulfills this regulatory requirement through investments in mortgage-backed securities. In addition, applicable law imposes certain restrictions upon the types and amounts of investments that may be made by our regulated insurance subsidiaries.

The Company’s investment policies further provide that investments are to be managed to maximize long-term returns consistent with liquidity, regulatory and risk objectives, and that investments should not expose the Company to excessive levels of market, credit, liquidity, and interest rate risks.

As of December 31, 2016, our debt and equity securities portfolio consisted of 92% of fixed income securities. As of that date, 60% of our fixed income investments were held in securities that are United States government-backed or rated AAA, and 94% of the fixed income portfolio were rated or classified as investment grade. Percentages are based on the estimated fair values of the securities. Credit ratings reflect published ratings obtained from Standard & Poor’s Rating Services, DBRS, Inc., Fitch Ratings, Inc. and Moody’s Investor Services, Inc. If a security was rated differently among the rating agencies, the lowest rating was selected.

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In addition to our debt and equity securities portfolio, we maintain certain money-market and other short-term investments. We also hold strategic equity investments in companies engaged in our businesses or similar or related businesses.

Employees

As of December 31, 2016, the Company employed 19,531 people on either a part-time or full-time basis.

Available Information

The Company maintains a website, www.firstam.com, which includes financial information and other information for investors, including open and closed title insurance orders (which typically are posted approximately 10 to 12 days after the end of each calendar month). The Company’s Annual Reports on Form 10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Form 8-K and amendments to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 are available free of charge through the “Investors” page of the website as soon as reasonably practicable after the Company electronically files such material with, or furnishes it to, the Securities and Exchange Commission. The Company’s website and the information contained therein or connected thereto are not intended to be incorporated into this Annual Report on Form 10-K, or any other filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission unless the Company expressly incorporates such materials.

You should carefully consider each of the following risk factors and the other information contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. The Company faces risks other than those listed here, including those that are unknown to the Company and others of which the Company may be aware but, at present, considers immaterial. Because of the following factors, as well as other variables affecting the Company’s operating results, past financial performance may not be a reliable indicator of future performance, and historical trends should not be used to anticipate results or trends in future periods.

1. Conditions in the real estate market generally impact the demand for a substantial portion of the Company’s products and services and the Company’s claims experience

Demand for a substantial portion of the Company’s products and services generally decreases as the number of real estate transactions in which its products and services are purchased decreases. The number of real estate transactions in which the Company’s products and services are purchased decreases in the following situations:

These circumstances, particularly declining real estate values and the increase in foreclosures that often results therefrom, also tend to adversely impact the Company’s title claims experience.

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2. Unfavorable economic conditions may have a material adverse effect on the Company

Historically, uncertainty and negative trends in general economic conditions in the United States and abroad, including significant tightening of credit markets and a general decline in the value of real property, have created a difficult operating environment for the Company’s businesses and other companies in its industries. In addition, the Company holds investments in entities, such as title agencies and settlement service providers, as well as securities in its investment portfolio, which may be negatively impacted by these conditions. The Company also owns a federal savings bank into which it deposits some of its own funds and some funds held in trust for third parties. This bank invests those funds and any realized losses incurred will be reflected in the Company’s consolidated results. The likelihood of such losses, which generally would not occur if the Company were to deposit these funds in an unaffiliated entity, increases when economic conditions are unfavorable. Depending upon the ultimate severity and duration of any economic downturn, the resulting effects on the Company could be materially adverse, including a significant reduction in revenues, earnings and cash flows, challenges to the Company’s ability to satisfy covenants or otherwise meet its obligations under debt facilities, difficulties in obtaining access to capital, challenges to the Company’s ability to pay dividends at currently anticipated levels, deterioration in the value of its investments and increased credit risk from customers and others with obligations to the Company.

3. Unfavorable economic or other conditions could cause the Company to write off a portion of its goodwill and other intangible assets

The Company performs an impairment test of the carrying value of goodwill and other indefinite-lived intangible assets annually in the fourth quarter, or sooner if circumstances indicate a possible impairment. Finite-lived intangible assets are subject to impairment tests on a periodic basis. Factors that may be considered in connection with this review include, without limitation, underperformance relative to historical or projected future operating results, reductions in the Company’s stock price and market capitalization, increased cost of capital and negative macroeconomic, industry and company-specific trends. These and other factors could lead to a conclusion that goodwill or other intangible assets are no longer fully recoverable, in which case the Company would be required to write off the portion believed to be unrecoverable. Total goodwill and other intangible assets reflected on the Company’s consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2016 are $1.1 billion. Any substantial goodwill and other intangible asset impairments that may be required could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s results of operations and financial condition.

4. Failures at financial institutions at which the Company deposits funds could adversely affect the Company

The Company deposits substantial funds in financial institutions. These funds include amounts owned by third parties, such as escrow deposits. Should one or more of the financial institutions at which deposits are maintained fail, there is no guarantee that the Company would recover the funds deposited, whether through Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation coverage or otherwise. In the event of any such failure, the Company also could be held liable for the funds owned by third parties.  

5. Changes in government regulation could prohibit or limit the Company’s operations, make it more burdensome to conduct such operations or result in decreased demand for the Company’s products and services

Many of the Company’s businesses, including its title insurance, property and casualty insurance, home warranty, banking, trust and investment businesses, are regulated by various federal, state, local and foreign governmental agencies. These and other of the Company’s businesses also operate within statutory guidelines. The industry in which the Company operates and the markets into which it sells its products are also regulated and subject to statutory guidelines. Changes in the applicable regulatory environment, statutory guidelines or interpretations of existing regulations or statutes, enhanced governmental oversight or efforts by governmental agencies to cause customers to refrain from using the Company’s products or services could prohibit or limit its future operations or make it more burdensome to conduct such operations or result in decreased demand for the Company’s products and services. The impact of these changes would be more significant if they involve jurisdictions in which the Company generates a greater portion of its title premiums, such as the states of Arizona, California, Florida, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Texas. These changes may compel the Company to reduce its prices, may restrict its ability to implement price increases or acquire assets or businesses, may limit the manner in which the Company conducts its business or otherwise may have a negative impact on its ability to generate revenues, earnings and cash flows.

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6. Scrutiny of the Company’s businesses and the industries in which it operates by governmental entities and others could adversely affect its operations and financial condition

The real estate settlement services industry, an industry in which the Company generates a substantial portion of its revenue and earnings, is subject to continuous scrutiny by regulators, legislators, the media and plaintiffs’ attorneys. Though often directed at the industry generally, these groups may also focus their attention directly on the Company’s businesses. In either case, this scrutiny may result in changes which could adversely affect the Company’s operations and, therefore, its financial condition and liquidity.

Governmental entities have routinely inquired into certain practices in the real estate settlement services industry to determine whether certain of the Company’s businesses or its competitors have violated applicable laws, which include, among others, the insurance codes of the various jurisdictions and the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act and similar state, federal and foreign laws. The CFPB, for example, has actively been utilizing its regulatory authority over the mortgage and real estate markets by bringing enforcement actions against various participants in the mortgage and settlement industries. Departments of insurance in the various states, the CFPB and other federal regulators and applicable regulators in international jurisdictions, either separately or together, also periodically conduct targeted inquiries into the practices of title insurance companies and other settlement services providers in their respective jurisdictions.

Further, from time to time plaintiffs’ lawyers may target the Company and other members of the Company’s industry with lawsuits claiming legal violations or other wrongful conduct. These lawsuits may involve large groups of plaintiffs and claims for substantial damages. Any of these types of inquiries or proceedings may result in a finding of a violation of the law or other wrongful conduct and may result in the payment of fines or damages or the imposition of restrictions on the Company’s conduct which could impact its operations and financial condition. Moreover, these laws and standards of conduct often are ambiguous and, thus, it may be difficult to ensure compliance. This ambiguity may force the Company to mitigate its risk by settling claims or by ending practices that generate revenues, earnings and cash flows.

7. The use of social media by the Company and other parties could result in damage to the Company’s reputation and adversely affect its business or results of operations

The Company increasingly utilizes social media to communicate with customers, current and potential employees and other individuals interested in the Company. Information delivered by the Company, or by third parties about the Company, via social media can be easily accessed and rapidly disseminated, and could result in reputational harm, decreased customer loyalty or other issues that could diminish the value of the Company’s brand or result in significant liability.

8. Regulation of title insurance rates could adversely affect the Company’s results of operations

Title insurance rates are subject to extensive regulation, which varies from state to state. In many states the approval of the applicable state insurance regulator is required prior to implementing a rate change. This regulation could hinder the Company’s ability to promptly adapt to changing market dynamics through price adjustments, which could adversely affect its results of operations, particularly in a rapidly declining market.

9. Changes in certain laws and regulations, and in the regulatory environment in which the Company operates, could adversely affect the Company’s competitive position and results of operations

Federal officials are currently discussing various potential changes to laws and regulations that could impact the Company’s businesses, including changes to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the reform or privatization of government-sponsored enterprises such as the Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae) and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac), and tax reform, including changes that could affect the mortgage interest deduction, among others. Changes in these areas, and more generally in the regulatory environment in which the Company and its customers operate, could adversely impact the volume of mortgage originations in the United States and the Company’s competitive position and results of operations.  

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10. The Company may find it difficult to acquire necessary data

Certain data used and supplied by the Company are subject to regulation by various federal, state and local regulatory authorities. Compliance with existing federal, state and local laws and regulations with respect to such data has not had a material adverse effect on the Company’s results of operations, financial condition or liquidity to date. Nonetheless, federal, state and local laws and regulations in the United States designed to protect the public from the misuse of personal information in the marketplace and adverse publicity or potential litigation concerning the commercial use of such information may affect the Company’s operations and could result in substantial regulatory compliance expense, litigation expense and a loss of revenue. The suppliers of data to the Company face similar burdens. As a result of these and other factors, the Company may find it financially burdensome to acquire necessary data.

11. Changes in the Company’s relationships with large mortgage lenders or government–sponsored enterprises could adversely affect the Company

The mortgage market in the United States is concentrated. Due to the consolidated nature of the industry, the Company derives a significant percentage of its revenues from a relatively small base of lenders, and their borrowers, which enhances the negotiating power of these lenders with respect to the pricing and the terms on which they purchase the Company’s products and other matters. Similarly, government-sponsored enterprises, because of their significant role in the mortgage process, have significant influence over the Company and other service providers. These circumstances could adversely affect the Company’s revenues and profitability. Changes in the Company’s relationship with any of these lenders or government-sponsored enterprises, the loss of all or a portion of the business the Company derives from these parties or any refusal of these parties to accept the Company’s products and services could have a material adverse effect on the Company.

12. A downgrade by ratings agencies, reductions in statutory capital and surplus maintained by the Company’s title insurance underwriters or a deterioration in other measures of financial strength may negatively affect the Company’s results of operations and competitive position

Certain of the Company’s customers use measurements of the financial strength of the Company’s title insurance underwriters, including, among others, ratings provided by ratings agencies and levels of statutory capital and surplus maintained by those underwriters, in determining the amount of a policy they will accept and the amount of reinsurance required. Each of the major ratings agencies currently rates the Company’s title insurance operations. The Company’s principal title insurance underwriter’s financial strength ratings are “A3” by Moody’s Investor Services, Inc., “A” by Fitch Ratings, Inc., “A-” by Standard & Poor’s Ratings Services and “A” by A.M. Best Company, Inc. These ratings provide the agencies’ perspectives on the financial strength, operating performance and cash generating ability of those operations. These agencies continually review these ratings and the ratings are subject to change. Statutory capital and surplus, or the amount by which statutory assets exceed statutory liabilities, is also a measure of financial strength. The Company’s principal title insurance underwriter maintained $1.2 billion of total statutory capital and surplus as of December 31, 2016. Accordingly, if the ratings or statutory capital and surplus of these title insurance underwriters are reduced from their current levels, or if there is a deterioration in other measures of financial strength, the Company’s results of operations, competitive position and liquidity could be adversely affected.

13. The Company’s investment portfolio is subject to certain risks and could experience losses

The Company maintains a substantial investment portfolio, primarily consisting of fixed income securities (including mortgage-backed securities). The investment portfolio also includes money-market and other short-term investments, as well as preferred and common stock. Securities in the Company’s investment portfolio are subject to certain economic and financial market risks, such as credit risk, interest rate (including call, prepayment and extension) risk and/or liquidity risk. The risk of loss associated with the portfolio is increased during periods of instability in credit markets and economic conditions. If the carrying value of the investments exceeds the fair value, and the decline in fair value is deemed to be other-than-temporary, the Company will be required to write down the value of the investments, which could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s results of operations, statutory surplus and financial condition.  

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14. Actual claims experience could materially vary from the expected claims experience reflected in the Company’s reserve for incurred but not reported claims

The Company maintains a reserve for incurred but not reported (“IBNR”) claims pertaining to its title, escrow and other insurance and guarantee products. The majority of this reserve pertains to title insurance policies, which are long-duration contracts with the majority of the claims reported within the first few years following the issuance of the policy. Generally, 70% to 80% of claim amounts become known in the first six years of the policy life, and the majority of IBNR reserves relate to the six most recent policy years. Changes in expected ultimate losses and corresponding loss rates for recent policy years are considered likely and could result in a material adjustment to the IBNR reserves. Based on historical experience, management believes a 50 basis point change to the loss rates for recent policy years, positive or negative, is reasonably likely given the long duration nature of a title insurance policy. For example, if the expected ultimate losses for each of the last six policy years increased or decreased by 50 basis points, the resulting impact on the Company’s IBNR reserve would be an increase or decrease, as the case may be, of $110.1 million. A material change in expected ultimate losses and corresponding loss rates for older policy years is also possible, particularly for policy years with loss ratios exceeding historical norms. The estimates made by management in determining the appropriate level of IBNR reserves could ultimately prove to be materially different from actual claims experience.

15. The issuance of the Company’s title insurance policies and related activities by title agents, which operate with substantial independence from the Company, could adversely affect the Company

The Company’s title insurance subsidiaries issue a significant portion of their policies through title agents that operate with a substantial degree of independence from the Company. While these title agents are subject to certain contractual limitations that are designed to limit the Company’s risk with respect to their activities, there is no guarantee that the agents will fulfill their contractual obligations to the Company. In addition, regulators are increasingly seeking to hold the Company responsible for the actions of these title agents and, under certain circumstances, the Company may be held liable directly to third parties for actions (including defalcations) or omissions of these agents. Recent case law in certain states also suggests that the Company is liable for the actions or omissions of its agents in those states, regardless of contractual limitations. As a result, the Company’s use of title agents could result in increased claims on the Company’s policies issued through agents and an increase in other costs and expenses.

16. The Company’s risk mitigation efforts may prove inadequate

The Company assumes risks in the ordinary course of its business, including through the issuance of title insurance policies and the provision of other products and services.  The Company mitigates these risks through a number of different means, including the implementation of underwriting policies and procedures and other mechanisms for assessing risk.  However, underwriting of title insurance policies and other risk-assumption decisions frequently involve a substantial degree of individual judgment.  The Company’s risk mitigation efforts or the reliability of any necessary judgment may prove inadequate, especially in situations where the Company or individuals involved in risk taking decisions are encouraged by customers or others, or because of competitive pressures, to assume risks or to expeditiously make risk determinations.  This circumstance could have an adverse effect on the Company’s results of operations, financial condition and liquidity. 

17. Systems damage, failures, interruptions and intrusions, and unauthorized data disclosures may disrupt the Company’s business, harm the Company’s reputation, result in material claims for damages or otherwise adversely affect the Company

The Company uses computer systems to receive, process, store and transmit business information, including highly sensitive non-public personal information as well as data from suppliers and other information upon which its business relies. It also uses these systems to manage substantial cash, investment assets, bank deposits, trust assets and escrow account balances on behalf of the Company and its customers, among other activities. Many of the Company’s products, services and solutions involving the use of real property related data are fully reliant on its systems and are only available electronically.  Accordingly, for a variety of reasons, the integrity of the Company’s computer systems and the protection of the information that resides on those systems are critically important to its successful operation.  The Company’s core computer systems are primarily located in two data centers.  The Company manages its primary data center and the secondary data center is maintained and managed by a third party.

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The Company’s computer systems and systems used by its agents, suppliers and customers have been subject to, and are likely to continue to be the target of, computer viruses, cyber attacks, phishing attacks and other malicious activity. These attacks have increased in frequency and sophistication in recent years, and could expose the Company to system-related damage, failures, interruptions, and other negative events.  Further, certain other potential causes of system damage or other negative system-related events are wholly or partially beyond the Company’s control, such as natural disasters, vendor failures to satisfy service level requirements and power or telecommunications failures.  These incidents, regardless of their underlying causes, could disrupt the Company’s business and could also result in the loss or unauthorized release, gathering, monitoring or destruction of confidential, proprietary and other information pertaining to the Company, its customers, employees, agents or suppliers.

Certain laws and contracts the Company has entered into require it to notify various parties, including consumers or customers, in the event of certain actual or potential data breaches or systems failures. These notifications can result, among other things, in the loss of customers, lawsuits, adverse publicity, diversion of management’s time and energy, the attention of regulatory authorities, fines and disruptions in sales.  Further, the Company’s financial institution customers have obligations to safeguard their computer systems and sensitive information and it may be bound contractually and/or by regulation to comply with the same requirements. If the Company fails to comply with applicable regulations and contractual requirements, it could be exposed to lawsuits, governmental proceedings or the imposition of fines, among other consequences.

Accordingly, any inability to prevent or adequately respond to the issues described above could disrupt the Company’s business, inhibit its ability to retain existing customers or attract new customers and/or result in financial losses, litigation, increased costs or other adverse consequences which could be material to the Company.

18. Errors and fraud involving the transfer of funds may result in material financial losses or harm the Company’s reputation

The Company relies on its systems, employees and domestic and international banks to transfer funds. These transfers are susceptible to user input error, fraud, system interruptions, incorrect processing and similar errors that could result in lost funds or delayed transactions. The Company’s email and computer systems and systems used by its agents, customers and other parties involved in a transaction have been subject to, and are likely to continue to be the target of, fraudulent attacks, including attempts to cause the Company or its agents to improperly transfer funds. These attacks have increased in frequency and sophistication in recent years. Funds transferred to a fraudulent recipient are often not recoverable. In certain instances the Company may be liable for those unrecovered funds. The controls and procedures used by the Company to prevent transfer errors and fraud may prove inadequate, resulting in financial losses, reputational harm, loss of customers or other adverse consequences which could be material to the Company.

19. The Company’s use of a global workforce involves risks that could negatively impact the Company

The Company utilizes lower cost labor in countries such as India and the Philippines, among others. These countries are subject to relatively high degrees of political and social instability and may lack the infrastructure to withstand natural disasters. Such disruptions could decrease efficiency and increase the Company’s costs. Weakness of the United States dollar in relation to the currencies used in these countries may also reduce the savings achievable through this strategy. Furthermore, the practice of utilizing labor based in other countries is subject to heightened scrutiny in the United States and, as a result, the Company could face pressure to decrease its use of labor based outside the United States. Laws or regulations that require the Company to use labor based in the United States or effectively increase the cost of the Company’s labor costs abroad also could be enacted. The Company may not be able to pass on these increased costs to its customers.

20. Acquisitions may have an adverse effect on our business

The Company has in the past acquired, and is expected to acquire in the future, other businesses. When businesses are acquired, the Company may not be able to integrate or manage these businesses in such a manner as to realize the anticipated synergies or otherwise produce returns that justify the investment. Acquired businesses may subject the Company to increased regulatory or compliance requirements. The Company may not be able to successfully retain employees of acquired businesses or integrate them, and could lose customers, suppliers or other partners as a result of the acquisitions. For these and other reasons, including changes in market conditions, the projections used to value the acquired businesses may prove inaccurate. In addition, the Company might incur unanticipated liabilities from acquisitions. These and other factors related to acquisitions could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s results of operations, financial condition and liquidity. The Company’s management also will continue to be required to dedicate substantial time and effort to the integration of its acquisitions. These efforts could divert management’s focus and resources from other strategic opportunities and operational matters.

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21. As a holding company, the Company depends on distributions from its subsidiaries, and if distributions from its subsidiaries are materially impaired, the Company’s ability to declare and pay dividends may be adversely affected; in addition, insurance and other regulations limit the amount of dividends, loans and advances available from the Company’s insurance subsidiaries

The Company is a holding company whose primary assets are investments in its operating subsidiaries. The Company’s ability to pay dividends is dependent on the ability of its subsidiaries to pay dividends or repay funds. If the Company’s operating subsidiaries are not able to pay dividends or repay funds, the Company may not be able to fulfill parent company obligations and/or declare and pay dividends to its stockholders. Moreover, pursuant to insurance and other regulations under which the Company’s insurance subsidiaries operate, the amount of dividends, loans and advances available is limited. As of December 31, 2016, under such regulations, the maximum amount of dividends, loans and advances available in 2017 from these insurance subsidiaries, without prior approval from applicable regulators, was $761.8 million.

22. Certain provisions of the Company’s bylaws and certificate of incorporation may reduce the likelihood of any unsolicited acquisition proposal or potential change of control that the Company’s stockholders might consider favorable

The Company’s bylaws and certificate of incorporation contain provisions that could be considered “anti-takeover” provisions because they make it harder for a third-party to acquire the Company without the consent of the Company’s incumbent board of directors. Under these provisions:

While the Company believes that they are appropriate, these provisions, which may only be amended by the affirmative vote of the holders of approximately 67% of the Company’s issued voting shares, could have the effect of discouraging an unsolicited acquisition proposal or delaying, deferring or preventing a change of control transaction that might involve a premium price or otherwise be considered favorably by the Company’s stockholders.   

Not applicable.

We maintain our executive offices at MacArthur Place in Santa Ana, California. This office campus consists of five office buildings, a technology center and a two-story parking structure, totaling approximately 490,000 square feet. Three office buildings, totaling approximately 210,000 square feet, and the fixtures thereto and underlying land, are subject to a deed of trust and security agreement securing payment of a promissory note evidencing a loan made in October 2003, to our principal title insurance subsidiary in the original sum of $55.0 million. This loan is payable in monthly installments of principal and interest, is fully amortizing and matures November 1, 2023. The outstanding principal balance of this loan was $25.8 million as of December 31, 2016.

The office facilities we occupy are, in all material respects, in good condition and adequate for their intended use.

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The Company and its subsidiaries are parties to a number of non-ordinary course lawsuits. These lawsuits frequently are similar in nature to other lawsuits pending against the Company’s competitors.

For those non-ordinary course lawsuits where the Company has determined that a loss is both probable and reasonably estimable, a liability representing the best estimate of the Company’s financial exposure based on known facts has been recorded. Actual losses may materially differ from the amounts recorded.

For a substantial majority of these lawsuits, however, it is not possible to assess the probability of loss. Most of these lawsuits are putative class actions which require a plaintiff to satisfy a number of procedural requirements before proceeding to trial. These requirements include, among others, demonstration to a court that the law proscribes in some manner the Company’s activities, the making of factual allegations sufficient to suggest that the Company’s activities exceeded the limits of the law and a determination by the court—known as class certification—that the law permits a group of individuals to pursue the case together as a class. In certain instances the Company may also be able to compel the plaintiff to arbitrate its claim on an individual basis. If these procedural requirements are not met, either the lawsuit cannot proceed or, as is the case with class certification or compelled arbitration, the plaintiffs lose the financial incentive to proceed with the case (or the amount at issue effectively becomes de minimis). Frequently, a court’s determination as to these procedural requirements is subject to appeal to a higher court. As a result of, among other factors, ambiguities and inconsistencies in the myriad laws applicable to the Company’s business and the uniqueness of the factual issues presented in any given lawsuit, the Company often cannot determine the probability of loss until a court has finally determined that a plaintiff has satisfied applicable procedural requirements.

Furthermore, because most of these lawsuits are putative class actions, it is often impossible to estimate the possible loss or a range of loss amounts, even where the Company has determined that a loss is reasonably possible. Generally class actions involve a large number of people and the effort to determine which people satisfy the requirements to become plaintiffs—or class members—is often time consuming and burdensome. Moreover, these lawsuits raise complex factual issues which result in uncertainty as to their outcome and, ultimately, make it difficult for the Company to estimate the amount of damages which a plaintiff might successfully prove. In addition, many of the Company’s businesses are regulated by various federal, state, local and foreign governmental agencies and are subject to numerous statutory guidelines. These regulations and statutory guidelines often are complex, inconsistent or ambiguous, which results in additional uncertainty as to the outcome of a given lawsuit—including the amount of damages a plaintiff might be afforded—or makes it difficult to analogize experience in one case or jurisdiction to another case or jurisdiction.

Most of the non-ordinary course lawsuits to which the Company and its subsidiaries are parties challenge practices in the Company’s title insurance business, though a limited number of cases also pertain to the Company’s other businesses. These lawsuits include, among others, cases alleging, among other assertions, that the Company, one of its subsidiaries and/or one of its agents:

A court has granted class certification in Lewis. For the reasons stated above, the Company has been unable to assess the probability of loss or estimate the possible loss or the range of loss.

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These lawsuits are putative class actions for which a class has not been certified. For the reasons described above, as well as the applicability of certain indemnification rights the Company may have, the Company has not yet been able to assess the probability of loss or estimate the possible loss or the range of loss or, where the Company has been able to make an estimate, the Company believes the amount is not material to the consolidated financial statements as a whole.

All of these lawsuits, except Kaufman and Kirk, are putative class actions for which a class has not been certified. In Kaufman a class was certified but that certification was subsequently vacated. A trial of the Kirk matter has concluded and the judgment has been affirmed on appeal. For the reasons described above, the Company has not yet been able to assess the probability of loss or estimate the possible loss or the range of loss or, where the Company has been able to make an estimate, the Company believes the amount is not material to the consolidated financial statements as a whole.

While some of the lawsuits described above may be material to the Company’s operating results in any particular period if an unfavorable outcome results, the Company does not believe that any of these lawsuits will have a material adverse effect on the Company’s overall financial condition or liquidity.

The Company also is a party to non-ordinary course lawsuits other than those described above. With respect to these lawsuits, the Company has determined either that a loss is not reasonably possible or that the estimated loss or range of loss, if any, is not material to the consolidated financial statements as a whole.

The Company’s title insurance, property and casualty insurance, home warranty, banking, thrift, trust and investment advisory businesses are regulated by various federal, state and local governmental agencies. Many of the Company’s other businesses operate within statutory guidelines. Consequently, the Company may from time to time be subject to examination or investigation by such governmental agencies. Currently, governmental agencies are examining or investigating certain of the Company’s operations. These exams or investigations include inquiries into, among other matters, pricing and rate setting practices in the title insurance industry, competition in the title insurance industry, real estate settlement service customer acquisition and retention practices and agency relationships. With respect to matters where the Company has determined that a loss is both probable and reasonably estimable, the Company has recorded a liability representing its best estimate of the financial exposure based on known facts. While the ultimate disposition of each such exam or investigation is not yet determinable, the Company does not believe that individually or in the aggregate they will have a material adverse effect on the Company’s financial condition, results of operations or cash flows. These exams or investigations could, however, result in changes to the Company’s business practices which could ultimately have a material adverse impact on the Company’s financial condition, results of operations or cash flows.

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The Company and its subsidiaries also are involved in numerous ongoing routine legal and regulatory proceedings related to their operations.  With respect to each of these proceedings, the Company has determined either that a loss is not reasonably possible or that the estimated loss or range of loss, if any, is not material to the consolidated financial statements as a whole.

Not applicable.

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PART II

Common Stock Market Prices and Dividends

The Company’s common stock trades on the New York Stock Exchange (ticker symbol FAF). The approximate number of record holders of common stock on February 10, 2017, was 2,487.

High and low stock prices and dividends declared for 2016 and 2015 are set forth in the table below.

In January 2017, the Company’s board of directors declared a cash dividend of $0.34 per share. We expect that the Company will continue to pay quarterly cash dividends at or above the current level. The timing, declaration and payment of future dividends, however, falls within the discretion of the Company’s board of directors and will depend upon many factors, including the Company’s financial condition and earnings, the capital requirements of our businesses, restrictions imposed by applicable law and any other factors the board of directors deems relevant from time to time. In addition, the ability to pay dividends also is potentially affected by the restrictions described in Note 2 Statutory Restrictions on Investments and Stockholders’ Equity to the consolidated financial statements included in “Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” of Part II of this report.

Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities

During the year ended December 31, 2016, the Company did not issue any unregistered common stock.

Purchases of Equity Securities by the Issuer and Affiliated Purchasers

Pursuant to the share repurchase program initially announced by the Company on March 16, 2011 and expanded on March 11, 2014, which program has no expiration date, the Company may repurchase up to $250.0 million of the Company’s issued and outstanding common stock. The Company did not repurchase any shares under this plan during the quarter ended December 31, 2016. Cumulatively the Company has repurchased $67.6 million (including commissions) of its shares and has the authority to repurchase an additional $182.4 million (including commissions) under the plan.

Stock Performance Graph

The following performance graph and related information shall not be deemed “soliciting material” or “filed” with the SEC, nor shall such information be incorporated by reference into any future filing under the Securities Act of 1933 or the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, each as amended, except to the extent that it is specifically incorporated by reference into such filing.

The following graph compares the cumulative total stockholder return on the Company’s common stock with the corresponding cumulative total returns of the Russell 2000 Financial Services Index, the Russell 1000 Index and a peer group index for the period from December 31, 2011 through December 31, 2016. In past years, the Company used the Russell 2000 Financial Services Index for purposes of the stock performance graph below. However, during 2016, the Russell indices were reconstituted such that the Company was moved from the Russell 2000 Index to the Russell 1000 Index. In connection with the reconstitution, the Company determined that the Russell 1000 Index would be a more appropriate broad equity market index to include in the stock performance graph. Accordingly, while both the Russell 1000 Index and the Russell 2000 Financial Services Index have been included for this transitional year, the Company does not expect to include the Russell 2000 Financial Services Index in future years.

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The comparison assumes an investment of $100 on December 31, 2011 and reinvestment of dividends. This historical performance is not indicative of future performance.

Comparison of Cumulative Total Return

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The selected historical consolidated financial data for First American Financial Corporation (the “Company”) as of and for each of the five years in the period ended December 31, 2016, have been derived from the Company’s consolidated financial statements. The selected historical consolidated financial data should be read in conjunction with “Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data,”“Item 1—Business,” and “Item 7—Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”  

First American Financial Corporation and Subsidiary Companies

Note A—Amounts related to years 2015 – 2012 have been revised to reflect the derecognition of certain title plant assets that should have been written off in prior periods, and the misclassification of certain capitalized software, title plant imaging, real estate data and investments related to title plant assets as title plant assets.  See Note 1 Basis of Presentation and Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements for further information about the financial statement revisions.

Note B—Per share information relating to net income is based on weighted-average number of shares outstanding for the years presented. Per share information relating to stockholders’ equity is based on shares outstanding at the end of each year.

Note C—Title order volumes are those processed by the direct domestic title operations of the Company and do not include orders processed by agents.

Note D—Number of employees is based on actual employee headcount.

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CERTAIN STATEMENTS IN THIS ANNUAL REPORT ON FORM 10-K ARE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS WITHIN THE MEANING OF SECTION 27A OF THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933, AS AMENDED, AND SECTION 21E OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934, AS AMENDED. THESE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS MAY CONTAIN THE WORDS “BELIEVE,” “ANTICIPATE,” “EXPECT,” “PLAN,” “PREDICT,” “ESTIMATE,” “PROJECT,” “WILL BE,” “WILL CONTINUE,” “WILL LIKELY RESULT,” OR OTHER SIMILAR WORDS AND PHRASES.

RISKS AND UNCERTAINTIES EXIST THAT MAY CAUSE RESULTS TO DIFFER MATERIALLY FROM THOSE SET FORTH IN THESE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS. FACTORS THAT COULD CAUSE THE ANTICIPATED RESULTS TO DIFFER FROM THOSE DESCRIBED IN THE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS INCLUDE THE FACTORS SET FORTH ON PAGES 3-4 OF THIS ANNUAL REPORT. THE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS SPEAK ONLY AS OF THE DATE THEY ARE MADE. THE COMPANY DOES NOT UNDERTAKE TO UPDATE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS TO REFLECT CIRCUMSTANCES OR EVENTS THAT OCCUR AFTER THE DATE THE FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS ARE MADE.

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis contains certain financial measures that are not presented in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”), including adjusted information and other revenues, adjusted personnel costs, adjusted other operating expenses and adjusted depreciation and amortization expense, in each case excluding the effects of recent acquisitions.  The Company is presenting these non-GAAP financial measures because they provide the Company’s management and readers of this Annual Report on Form 10-K with additional insight into the operational performance of the Company relative to earlier periods.  The Company does not intend for these non-GAAP financial measures to be a substitute for any GAAP financial information.  In this Annual Report on Form 10-K, these non-GAAP financial measures have been presented with, and reconciled to, the most directly comparable GAAP financial measures.  Readers of this Annual Report on Form 10-K should use these non-GAAP financial measures only in conjunction with the comparable GAAP financial measures.

Principles of Consolidation

The consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with GAAP and reflect the consolidated operations of the Company. The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of First American Financial Corporation and all controlled subsidiaries. All significant intercompany transactions and balances have been eliminated. Investments in affiliates in which the Company exercises significant influence, but does not control and is not the primary beneficiary, are accounted for using the equity method. Investments in affiliates in which the Company does not exercise significant influence over the investee are accounted for under the cost method.

Reportable Segments

The Company consists of the following reportable segments and a corporate function:

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The corporate function consists primarily of certain financing facilities as well as the corporate services that support the Company’s business operations.

Critical Accounting Estimates

The preparation of financial statements in accordance with GAAP requires the application of accounting policies that often involve a significant degree of judgment. The Company’s management considers the accounting policies described below to be the most dependent on the application of estimates and assumptions in preparing the Company’s consolidated financial statements. See Note 1 Description of the Company to the consolidated financial statements for a more detailed description of the Company’s significant accounting policies.

Provision for policy losses.    The Company provides for title insurance losses by a charge to expense when the related premium revenue is recognized. The amount charged to expense is generally determined by applying a rate (the loss provision rate) to total title insurance premiums and escrow fees. The Company’s management estimates the loss provision rate at the beginning of each year and reassesses the rate quarterly to ensure that the resulting incurred but not reported (“IBNR”) loss reserve and known claims reserve included in the Company’s consolidated balance sheets together reflect management’s best estimate of the total costs required to settle all IBNR and known claims. If the ending IBNR reserve is not considered adequate, an adjustment is recorded.

The process of assessing the loss provision rate and the resulting IBNR reserve involves evaluation of the results of an in-house actuarial review. The Company’s in-house actuary performs a reserve analysis utilizing generally accepted actuarial methods that incorporate cumulative historical claims experience and information provided by in-house claims and operations personnel. Current economic and business trends are also reviewed and used in the reserve analysis. These include conditions in the real estate and mortgage markets, changes in residential and commercial real estate values, and changes in the levels of defaults and foreclosures that may affect claims levels and patterns of emergence, as well as any company-specific factors that may be relevant to past and future claims experience. Results from the analysis include, but are not limited to, a range of IBNR reserve estimates and a single point estimate for IBNR as of the balance sheet date.

For recent policy years at early stages of development (generally the last three years), IBNR is generally estimated using a combination of expected loss rate and multiplicative loss development factor calculations. For more mature policy years, IBNR generally is estimated using multiplicative loss development factor calculations. The expected loss rate method estimates IBNR by applying an expected loss rate to total title insurance premiums and escrow fees, and adjusting for policy year maturity using estimated loss development patterns. Multiplicative loss development factor calculations estimate IBNR by applying factors derived from loss development patterns to losses realized to date. The expected loss rate and loss development patterns are based on historical experience and the relationship of the history to the applicable policy years.

The Company’s management uses the IBNR point estimate from the in-house actuary’s analysis and other relevant information concerning claims to determine what it considers to be the best estimate of the total amount required for the IBNR reserve.

The volume and timing of title insurance claims are subject to cyclical influences from real estate and mortgage markets. Title policies issued to lenders constitute a large portion of the Company’s title insurance volume. These policies insure lenders against losses on mortgage loans due to title defects in the collateral property. Even if an underlying title defect exists that could result in a claim, often, the lender must realize an actual loss, or at least be likely to realize an actual loss, for title insurance liability to exist. As a result, title insurance claims exposure is sensitive to lenders’ losses on mortgage loans, and is affected in turn by external factors that affect mortgage loan losses, particularly macroeconomic factors.

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A general decline in real estate prices can expose lenders to greater risk of losses on mortgage loans, as loan-to-value ratios increase and defaults and foreclosures increase. Title insurance claims exposure for a given policy year is also affected by the quality of mortgage loan underwriting during the corresponding origination year. The Company believes that the sensitivity of claims to external conditions in the real estate and mortgage markets is an inherent feature of title insurance’s business economics that applies broadly to the title insurance industry.

Title insurance policies are long-duration contracts with the majority of the claims reported to the Company within the first few years following the issuance of the policy. Generally, 70% to 80% of claim amounts become known in the first six years of the policy life, and the majority of IBNR reserves relate to the six most recent policy years. Changes in expected ultimate losses and corresponding loss rates for recent policy years are considered likely and could result in a material adjustment to the IBNR reserves. Based on historical experience, management believes a 50 basis point change to the loss rates for recent policy years, positive or negative, is reasonably likely given the long duration nature of a title insurance policy. For example, if the expected ultimate losses for each of the last six policy years increased or decreased by 50 basis points, the resulting impact on the Company’s IBNR reserve would be an increase or decrease, as the case may be, of $110.1 million. A material change in expected ultimate losses and corresponding loss rates for older policy years is also possible, particularly for policy years with loss ratios exceeding historical norms. The estimates made by management in determining the appropriate level of IBNR reserves could ultimately prove to be materially different from actual claims experience.

The Company provides for property and casualty insurance losses when the insured event occurs. The Company provides for claims losses relating to its home warranty business based on the average cost per claim as applied to the total of new claims incurred. The average cost per home warranty claim is calculated using the average of the most recent 12 months of claims experience adjusted for estimated future increases in costs.

A summary of the Company’s loss reserves is as follows:

Activity in the reserve for known title claims is summarized as follows:

“Other” for 2015 included recoveries of $23.8 million on reinsured losses related to a large commercial title claim.

The provision transferred from IBNR title claims related to current year increased by $1.5 million in 2016 from 2015 and decreased by $16.4 million in 2015 from 2014 and payments, net of recoveries, related to current year increased by $1.2 million in 2016 from 2015 and decreased by $11.0 million in 2015 from 2014, reflecting variability in claims volumes characteristic of a policy year during its first year of development. In addition, 2014 experienced a higher level of fraud losses when compared to 2016 and 2015.

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The provision transferred from IBNR title claims related to prior years increased by $3.6 million, or 1.9%, in 2016 from 2015 and decreased by $90.0 million, or 32.8%, in 2015 from 2014.  Payments, net of recoveries, related to prior years decreased by $45.7 million, or 18.8%, in 2016 from 2015 and decreased by $6.3 million, or 2.5%, in 2015 from 2014.  Generally, the provision transferred from IBNR title claims and payments are expected to decline with the runoff of older policy years that have higher expected ultimate losses, particularly policy years 2005 through 2008.  2015 and 2014 were impacted by the timing of the provision transferred from IBNR title claims and payments associated with certain large claims.  During 2014, the Company transferred provision of $56.0 million from IBNR title claims related to these large claims, and the Company paid $35.0 million, net of $21.0 million recovered through reinsurance, during the first quarter of 2015 to settle these claims.

Activity in the reserve for IBNR title claims is summarized as follows:

“Other” primarily includes foreign currency translation gains and losses, assets acquired in connection with claim settlements, and recoveries.  “Other” for 2014 included a reinsurance receivable of $25.0 million that related to a large commercial title claim.

The provision related to current year increased by $22.3 million, or 13.1%, in 2016 from 2015.  This increase was attributable to a 6.5% increase in title premiums and escrow fees in 2016 from 2015 and a higher current year loss rate in 2016 when compared to 2015.  The current year loss rate in 2016 was 4.5% compared to 4.2% in 2015.

The provision related to current year decreased by $18.2 million, or 9.6%, in 2015 from 2014.  This decrease was attributable to a lower current year loss rate in 2015 when compared to 2014, partly offset by a 13.0% increase in title premiums and escrow fees in 2015 from 2014.  The current year loss rate in 2015 was 4.2% compared to 5.3% in 2014.

For further discussion of title provision recorded in 2016, 2015 and 2014, see Results of Operations, pages 38 and 39.

Fair value of investment portfolio.     The Company categorizes the fair value of its debt and equity securities using a three-level hierarchy for fair value measurements that distinguishes between market participant assumptions developed based on market data obtained from sources independent of the Company (observable inputs) and the Company’s own assumptions about market participant assumptions developed based on the best information available in the circumstances (unobservable inputs). The hierarchy for inputs used in determining fair value maximizes the use of observable inputs and minimizes the use of unobservable inputs by requiring that observable inputs be used when available. The hierarchy level assigned to each security in the Company’s available-for-sale portfolio was based on management’s assessment of the transparency and reliability of the inputs used to estimate the fair values at the measurement date. See Note 14 Fair Value Measurements to the consolidated financial statements for a more detailed description of the three-level hierarchy and a description for each level.  

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The valuation techniques and inputs used to estimate the fair value of the Company’s debt and equity securities are summarized as follows:

Fair value of debt securities

The fair values of debt securities were based on the market values obtained from independent pricing services that were evaluated using pricing models that vary by asset class and incorporate available trade, bid and other market information and price quotes from well-established independent broker-dealers. The independent pricing services monitor market indicators, industry and economic events, and for broker-quoted only securities, obtain quotes from market makers or broker-dealers that they recognize to be market participants. The pricing services utilize the market approach in determining the fair value of the debt securities held by the Company. The Company obtains an understanding of the valuation models and assumptions utilized by the services and has controls in place to determine that the values provided represent fair value. The Company’s validation procedures include comparing prices received from the pricing services to quotes received from other third party sources for certain securities with market prices that are readily verifiable. If the price comparison results in differences over a predefined threshold, the Company will assess the reasonableness of the changes relative to prior periods given the prevailing market conditions and assess changes in the issuers’ credit worthiness, performance of any underlying collateral and prices of the instrument relative to similar issuances. To date, the Company has not made any material adjustments to the fair value measurements provided by the pricing services.

Typical inputs and assumptions to pricing models used to value the Company’s U.S. Treasury bonds, municipal bonds, foreign government bonds, governmental agency bonds, governmental agency mortgage-backed securities and U.S. and foreign corporate debt securities include, but are not limited to, benchmark yields, reported trades, broker-dealer quotes, credit spreads, credit ratings, bond insurance (if applicable), benchmark securities, bids, offers, reference data and industry and economic events. For mortgage-backed securities, inputs and assumptions may also include the structure of issuance, characteristics of the issuer, collateral attributes and prepayment speeds. Non-agency mortgage-backed securities and certain U.S. and foreign corporate debt securities were not actively traded and there were fewer observable inputs available requiring the use of more judgment in determining their fair values, which resulted in their classification as Level 3.

Other-than-temporary impairment–debt securities

If the Company intends to sell a debt security in an unrealized loss position or determines that it is more likely than not that the Company will be required to sell a debt security before it recovers its amortized cost basis, the debt security is other-than-temporarily impaired and it is written down to fair value with all losses recognized in earnings. As of December 31, 2016, the Company did not intend to sell any debt securities in an unrealized loss position and it is not more likely than not that the Company will be required to sell debt securities before recovery of their amortized cost basis.

If the Company does not expect to recover the amortized cost basis of a debt security with declines in fair value (even if the Company does not intend to sell the debt security and it is not more likely than not that the Company will be required to sell the debt security), the losses the Company considers to be the credit portion of the other-than-temporary impairment loss (“credit loss”) is recognized in earnings and the non-credit portion is recognized in other comprehensive income. The credit loss is the difference between the present value of the cash flows expected to be collected and the amortized cost basis of the debt security. The cash flows expected to be collected are discounted at the rate implicit in the security immediately prior to the recognition of the other-than-temporary impairment.

Expected future cash flows for debt securities are based on qualitative and quantitative factors specific to each security, including the probability of default and the estimated timing and amount of recovery. The detailed inputs used to project expected future cash flows may be different depending on the nature of the individual debt security.

The Company recorded other-than-temporary impairment losses considered to be credit related on its debt securities of $0.5 million, $2.2 million and $1.7 million for 2016, 2015, and 2014, respectively.  

Fair value of equity securities

The fair values of equity securities, including preferred and common stocks, were based on quoted market prices for identical assets that are readily and regularly available in an active market.

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Other-than-temporary impairment–equity securities

When a decline in the fair value of an equity security, including common and preferred stock, is considered to be other-than-temporary, such equity security is written down to its fair value. When assessing if a decline in fair value is other-than-temporary, the factors considered include the length of time and extent to which fair value has been below cost, the probability that the Company will be unable to collect all amounts due under the contractual terms of the security, the seniority of the securities, issuer-specific news and other developments, the financial condition and prospects of the issuer (including credit ratings), macro-economic changes (including the outlook for industry sectors, which includes government policy initiatives) and the Company’s ability and intent to hold the security for a period of time sufficient to allow for any anticipated recovery.

When an equity security has been in an unrealized loss position and its fair value is less than 80% of cost for twelve consecutive months, the Company’s review of the security includes the above noted factors as well as other evidence that might exist supporting the view that the security will recover its value in the foreseeable future. If objective, substantial evidence does not indicate a likely recovery during that timeframe, the Company’s policy is that such losses are considered other-than-temporary and therefore an impairment loss is recorded. The Company did not record any other-than-temporary impairment losses related to its equity securities for 2016, 2015 and 2014.

Litigation and regulatory contingencies.    The Company and its subsidiaries are parties to a number of ongoing routine and non-ordinary course legal proceedings. For those lawsuits where the Company has determined that a loss is both probable and reasonably estimable, a liability representing the best estimate of the Company’s financial exposure based on known facts has been recorded. Actual losses may materially differ from the amounts recorded.  For a substantial majority of these lawsuits it is not possible to assess the probability of loss. Most of these lawsuits are putative class actions which require a plaintiff to satisfy a number of procedural requirements before proceeding to trial. As a result of, among other factors, ambiguities and inconsistencies in the myriad laws applicable to the Company’s business and the uniqueness of the factual issues presented in any given lawsuit, the Company often cannot determine the probability of loss until a court has finally determined that a plaintiff has satisfied applicable procedural requirements. Furthermore, because most of these lawsuits are putative class actions, it is often impossible to estimate the possible loss or a range of loss, even where the Company has determined that a loss is reasonably possible.  In addition, many of the Company’s businesses are regulated by various federal, state, local and foreign governmental agencies and are subject to numerous statutory guidelines. These regulations and statutory guidelines often are complex, inconsistent or ambiguous, which results in additional uncertainty as to the outcome of a given lawsuit—including the amount of damages a plaintiff might be afforded—or makes it difficult to analogize experience in one case or jurisdiction to another case or jurisdiction.

Business Combinations.    The Company allocates the fair value of purchase consideration to the tangible assets acquired, liabilities assumed and intangible assets acquired based on their estimated fair values. The excess of the fair value of purchase consideration over the fair values of these identifiable assets and liabilities is recorded as goodwill. When determining the fair values of assets acquired and liabilities assumed, management makes significant estimates and assumptions, especially with respect to intangible assets.

Critical estimates in valuing certain intangible assets include, but are not limited to, future expected cash flows, useful lives and discount rates. Management’s estimates of fair value are based upon assumptions believed to be reasonable, but which are inherently uncertain and unpredictable and, as a result, may differ from actual results. Other estimates associated with the accounting for acquisitions may change as additional information becomes available regarding the assets acquired and liabilities assumed.

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Impairment assessment for goodwill.    The Company is required to perform an annual goodwill impairment assessment for each reporting unit. The Company’s four reporting units are title insurance, home warranty, property and casualty insurance and trust and other services. The Company has elected to perform this annual assessment in the fourth quarter of each fiscal year or sooner if circumstances indicate possible impairment. Based on current guidance, the Company has the option to perform a qualitative assessment to determine if the fair value is more likely than not (i.e., a likelihood of greater than 50%) less than the carrying amount as a basis for determining whether it is necessary to perform a quantitative impairment test, or may choose to forego the qualitative assessment and perform the quantitative impairment test. The qualitative factors considered in this assessment may include macroeconomic conditions, industry and market considerations, overall financial performance as well as other relevant events and circumstances as determined by the Company. The Company evaluates the weight of each factor to determine whether it is more likely than not that impairment may exist. If the results of the qualitative assessment indicate the more likely than not threshold was not met, the Company may choose not to perform the quantitative impairment test. If, however, the more likely than not threshold is met, the Company performs the quantitative test as required and discussed below.

Management’s quantitative impairment testing process includes two steps. The first step (“Step 1”) compares the fair value of each reporting unit to its carrying amount. The fair value of each reporting unit is determined by using discounted cash flow analysis and market approach valuations. If the fair value of the reporting unit exceeds its carrying amount, the goodwill is not considered impaired and no additional analysis is required. However, if the carrying amount is greater than the fair value, a second step (“Step 2”) must be completed to determine if the fair value of the goodwill exceeds the carrying amount of goodwill.

Step 2 involves calculating an implied fair value of goodwill for each reporting unit for which Step 1 indicated impairment. The implied fair value of goodwill is determined in a manner similar to the amount of goodwill calculated in a business combination, by measuring the excess of the estimated fair value of the reporting unit, as determined in Step 1, over the aggregate estimated fair values of the individual assets, liabilities and identifiable intangibles as if the reporting unit was being acquired in a business combination. If the implied fair value of goodwill exceeds the carrying value of goodwill assigned to the reporting unit, there is no impairment. If the carrying value of goodwill assigned to a reporting unit exceeds the implied fair value of the goodwill, an impairment loss is recorded for the excess. An impairment loss cannot exceed the carrying value of goodwill assigned to a reporting unit, and the loss establishes a new basis in the goodwill. Subsequent reversal of goodwill impairment losses is not permitted.

The quantitative impairment test for goodwill utilizes a variety of valuation techniques, all of which require the Company to make estimates and judgments. Fair value is determined by employing an expected present value technique, which utilizes multiple cash flow scenarios that reflect a range of possible outcomes and an appropriate discount rate. The use of comparative market multiples (the “market approach”) compares the reporting unit to other comparable companies (if such comparables are present in the marketplace) based on valuation multiples to arrive at a fair value. In assessing the fair value, the Company utilizes the results of the valuations (including the market approach to the extent comparables are available) and considers the range of fair values determined under all methods and the extent to which the fair value exceeds the carrying amount of the reporting unit.

The valuation of each reporting unit includes the use of assumptions and estimates of many critical factors, including revenue growth rates and operating margins, discount rates and future market conditions, determination of market multiples and the establishment of a control premium, among others. Forecasts of future operations are based, in part, on operating results and the Company’s expectations as to future market conditions. These types of analyses contain uncertainties because they require the Company to make assumptions and to apply judgments to estimate industry economic factors and the profitability of future business strategies. However, if actual results are not consistent with the Company’s estimates and assumptions, the Company may be exposed to future impairment losses that could be material.

For 2016, the Company chose to forego the qualitative assessment and performed a quantitative impairment test and, based on the results, determined that the fair values of its reporting units exceeded their carrying amounts and, therefore, no additional analysis was required.  The Company chose to perform qualitative assessments for 2015 and 2014, the results of which supported the conclusion that the fair values of the Company’s reporting units were not more likely than not less than their carrying amounts and, therefore, a quantitative impairment test was not considered necessary.  As a result, the Company did not record any goodwill impairment losses for 2016, 2015 or 2014.

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Impairment assessment for other intangible assets.    Management uses estimated future cash flows (undiscounted and excluding interest) to measure the recoverability of intangible assets with finite lives, whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value may not be fully recoverable. If the undiscounted cash flow analysis indicates that the carrying amount is not recoverable, an impairment loss is recorded for the excess of the carrying amount over its fair value.

Management’s impairment assessment for indefinite-lived other intangible assets may involve calculating the fair value by using a discounted cash flow analysis or through a market approach valuation. If the fair value exceeds its carrying amount, the asset is not considered impaired and no additional analysis is required. However, if the carrying amount is greater than the fair value, an impairment loss is recorded equal to the excess.

Impairment of equity method investments in affiliates. The carrying value of equity method investments in affiliates is written down, or impaired, to fair value when a decline in value is considered to be other-than-temporary. In making the determination as to whether an individual investment in an affiliate is impaired, the Company assesses the current and expected financial condition of each relevant entity, including, but not limited to, the anticipated ability of the entity to make its contractually required payments to the Company (with respect to debt obligations to the Company), the results of valuation work performed with respect to the entity, the entity’s anticipated ability to generate sufficient cash flows and the market conditions in the industry in which the entity is operating.  The Company did not record any impairment losses related to its equity method investments for 2016 and recognized impairment losses of $2.0 million and $22.5 million for 2015 and 2014, respectively.

Impairment of property and equipment. Management uses estimated future cash flows (undiscounted and excluding interest) to measure the recoverability of property and equipment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value may not be fully recoverable. If the undiscounted cash flow analysis indicates that the carrying amount is not recoverable, an impairment loss is recorded for the excess of the carrying amount over its fair value. Impairment losses on property and equipment, which primarily related to impairments of internally developed software, were $5.2 million, $10.9 million and $1.2 million for 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

Income taxes.    The Company accounts for income taxes under the asset and liability method, whereby deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributable to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using enacted tax rates expected to apply in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities of a change in tax rates is recognized in income in the period that includes the enactment date. The Company evaluates the need to establish a valuation allowance for deferred tax assets based upon the amount of existing temporary differences, the period in which they are expected to be recovered and expected levels of taxable income. A valuation allowance to reduce deferred tax assets is established when it is considered more likely than not that some or all of the deferred tax assets will not be realized.

The Company recognizes the effect of income tax positions only if sustaining those positions is considered more likely than not. Changes in recognition or measurement of uncertain tax positions are reflected in the period in which a change in judgment occurs. The Company recognizes interest and penalties, if any, related to uncertain tax positions in income tax expense.

Employee benefit plans.    The Company recognizes the overfunded or underfunded status of its funded defined benefit pension and unfunded supplemental benefit plans as an asset or liability on its consolidated balance sheets and recognizes changes in the funded status in the year in which changes occur, through accumulated other comprehensive loss. The funded status is measured as the difference between the fair value of plan assets and benefit obligation (the projected benefit obligation for pension plans and the accumulated postretirement benefit obligation for the other postretirement plans). Actuarial gains and losses and prior service costs and credits that have not been recognized as a component of net periodic benefit cost previously are recorded as a component of accumulated other comprehensive loss. Plan assets and obligations are measured annually as of December 31.

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The assumptions that have had the most significant impact to net periodic costs are the discount rate and expected long-term rate of return on plan assets.  The discount rate assumption reflects the yield available on high-quality, fixed-income debt securities that match the expected timing of the benefit obligation payments. Assumptions for the expected long-term rate of return on assets of the funded defined benefit pension plans are based on future expectations for returns for each asset class based on the calculated market-related value of plan assets and the effect of periodic target asset allocation rebalancing, adjusted for the payment of reasonable expenses of the plans from plan assets.  See Note 13 Employee Benefit Plans to the consolidated financial statements for discussion of the termination of the Company’s funded defined benefit pension plans.

Weighted-average actuarial assumptions used to determine costs for the plans for the years ended December 31, 2016 and 2015, were as follows:

Weighted-average actuarial assumptions used to determine benefit obligations for the plans at December 31, 2016 and 2015, were as follows:

Recently Adopted Accounting Pronouncements

In September 2015, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued updated guidance intended to simplify the accounting for adjustments made to provisional amounts recognized in a business combination and eliminates the requirement to retrospectively account for those adjustments. The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015 and applies prospectively to adjustments made to provisional amounts that occur after the effective date of this guidance with early adoption permitted for financial statements that have not been issued. The adoption of this guidance had no impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

In August 2015, the FASB issued updated guidance relating to the Securities and Exchange Commission Staff Announcement at the June 18, 2015 Emerging Issues Task Force meeting on the presentation and subsequent measurement of debt issuance costs associated with line-of-credit arrangements. The updated guidance allows for the deferral and presentation of debt issuance costs as an asset which may be amortized ratably over the term of the line-of-credit arrangement, regardless of whether there are any related outstanding borrowings. The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, with early adoption permitted. The adoption of this guidance had no impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

In May 2015, the FASB issued updated disclosure guidance related to short-duration contracts issued by insurance entities.  The updated guidance is intended to increase the transparency of significant estimates made in measuring liabilities for unpaid claims and claim adjustment expenses and to provide additional insight into an insurance entity’s ability to underwrite and anticipate costs associated with claims. The updated guidance is effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015 and for interim periods within annual periods beginning after December 15, 2016, with early adoption permitted. Except for the disclosure requirements, the adoption of this guidance had no impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

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In May 2015, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to eliminate the diversity in practice surrounding how investments measured at net asset value under the practical expedient with future redemption dates have been categorized in the fair value hierarchy.  Under the updated guidance, investments for which fair value is measured at net asset value per share using the practical expedient should no longer be categorized in the fair value hierarchy. The updated guidance requires retrospective adoption for all periods presented and is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, with early adoption permitted. The adoption of this guidance had no impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

In April 2015, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to clarify the accounting treatment for cloud computing arrangements that include software licenses. Under the updated guidance, if a cloud computing arrangement includes a software license, the customer should account for the software license element of the arrangement consistent with the acquisition of other software licenses. If a cloud computing arrangement does not include a software license, the customer should account for the arrangement as a service contract.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, with early adoption permitted. The Company elected to adopt the updated guidance prospectively for all arrangements entered into or materially modified after the effective date. The adoption of this guidance did not have a material impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements. The financial statement line items impacted by the adoption of the updated guidance include other intangible assets, net and depreciation and amortization.  See Note 6 Other Intangible Assets to the consolidated financial statements for further information on the Company’s internal-use software licenses.

In April 2015, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to simplify, and provide consistency to, the presentation of debt issuance costs. The new standard requires that debt issuance costs be presented in the balance sheet as a direct deduction from the carrying amount of the debt liability, consistent with debt discounts. The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, with early adoption permitted.  The adoption of this guidance did not have a material impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

In February 2015, the FASB issued updated guidance which changes the analysis that a reporting entity must perform to determine whether it should consolidate certain types of legal entities.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, with early adoption permitted.  The adoption of this guidance had no impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

In June 2014, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to eliminate the diversity in practice regarding share-based payment awards that include terms which provide for a performance target that affects vesting being achieved after the requisite service period. The new standard requires that a performance target which affects vesting and could be achieved after the requisite service period be treated as a performance condition that affects vesting and should not be reflected in estimating the grant-date fair value.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015, with early adoption permitted.  The adoption of this guidance had no impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

Pending Accounting Pronouncements

In November 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to reduce the diversity in practice on presenting restricted cash or restricted cash equivalents in the statement of cash flows.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted.  The Company does not expect the adoption of this guidance to have a material impact on its consolidated financial statements.

In October 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance to amend the consolidation guidance on how a reporting entity that is the single decision maker of a variable interest entity should treat indirect interests in the entity held through related parties that are under common control with the reporting entity when determining whether it is the primary beneficiary of that variable interest entity.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2016, with early adoption permitted.  The Company does not expect the adoption of this guidance to have a material impact on its consolidated financial statements.

In October 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to simplify and improve the accounting for the income tax consequences of intra-entity transfers of assets other than inventory.  The updated guidance, which eliminates the intra-entity transfers exception, requires entities to recognize the income tax consequences of intra-entity transfers of assets, other than inventory, when the transfers occur.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted.  The Company does not expect the adoption of this guidance to have a material impact on its consolidated financial statements.

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In August 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to eliminate the diversity in practice regarding the presentation and classification of certain cash receipts and cash payments in the statement of cash flows.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted.  The Company does not expect the adoption of this guidance to have a material impact on its consolidated statements of cash flows.

In June 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to provide financial statement users with more decision-useful information about the expected credit losses on financial instruments and other commitments to extend credit held by a reporting entity at each reporting date.  The updated guidance replaces the current incurred loss impairment methodology with a methodology that reflects expected credit losses and requires the consideration of a broader range of reasonable and supportable information to inform credit loss estimates.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2019, with early adoption permitted.  The Company is currently assessing the impact of the new guidance on its consolidated financial statements.

In March 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to simplify and improve several aspects of the accounting for share-based payment transactions, including the income tax consequences, classification of such awards as either equity or liabilities and classification on the statement of cash flows.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2016, with early adoption permitted.  The Company does not expect the adoption of this guidance to have a material impact on its consolidated financial statements.

In March 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to simplify the accounting treatment for investments that become qualified for the equity method of accounting as a result of an increase in the level of ownership interest or degree of influence.  The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2016, with early adoption permitted. The Company expects the adoption of this guidance to have no impact on its consolidated financial statements.

In February 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance that requires the rights and obligations associated with leasing arrangements be reflected on the balance sheet in order to increase transparency and comparability among organizations. Under the updated guidance, lessees will be required to recognize a right-of-use asset and a liability to make lease payments and disclose key information about leasing arrangements. The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2018, with early adoption permitted.  While the Company is currently evaluating the impact the new guidance will have on its consolidated financial statements, the Company expects the adoption of the new guidance will result in a material increase in the assets and liabilities on its consolidated balance sheets and will likely have an insignificant impact on its consolidated statements of income and statements of cash flows.

In January 2016, the FASB issued updated guidance intended to enhance the reporting model for financial instruments to provide users of financial statements with more decision-useful information.  In addition to making other targeted improvements to current guidance, the updated guidance also requires all equity investments, except those accounted for under the equity method of accounting or those that result in consolidation of the investee, to be measured at fair value with changes in the fair value recognized through net income. The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted in certain circumstances. While the Company expects the adoption of this guidance to impact its consolidated statements of income, the materiality of the impact will depend upon the size of, and level of volatility experienced within, the Company’s equity portfolio.

In May 2014, the FASB issued updated guidance for recognizing revenue from contracts with customers to provide a single, comprehensive revenue recognition model for all contracts with customers to improve comparability within and across industries, and across capital markets. The new revenue standard contains principles that an entity will apply to determine the measurement of revenue and the timing of recognition. The underlying principle is that an entity will recognize revenue to depict the transfer of goods or services to customers at an amount that the entity expects to be entitled to in exchange for those goods or services. Revenue from insurance contracts is not within the scope of this guidance. In August 2015, the FASB issued updated guidance which defers the effective date of this guidance by one year. In 2016, the FASB issued additional updates to the new guidance primarily to clarify, among other things, the implementation guidance related to principal versus agent considerations, identifying performance obligations, accounting for licenses of intellectual property, and to provide narrow-scope improvements and additional practical expedients. The updated guidance is effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption prohibited. The Company expects to adopt the new guidance under the modified retrospective approach and, based on a preliminary assessment, does not expect the new guidance to have a material impact on its consolidated financial statements.

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Results of Operations

Overview

A substantial portion of the revenues for the Company’s title insurance and services segment results from the sale and refinancing of residential and commercial real estate. In the Company’s specialty insurance segment, revenues associated with the initial year of coverage in both the home warranty and property and casualty operations are impacted by volatility in residential purchase transactions. Traditionally, the greatest volume of real estate activity, particularly residential purchase activity, has occurred in the spring and summer months. However, changes in interest rates, as well as other changes in general economic conditions in the United States and abroad, can cause fluctuations in the traditional pattern of real estate activity.

The Company’s total revenues for the year ended December 31, 2016 were $5.6 billion, which reflected an increase of $0.4 billion, or 7.7%, when compared with $5.2 billion for the year ended December 31, 2015.  This increase was primarily attributable to an increase in agent premiums of $188.4 million, or 9.0%, and, to a lesser extent, an increase in direct premiums and escrow fees in the title insurance and services segment of $74.9 million, or 3.9%, in 2016 when compared to 2015.  Direct premiums and escrow fees from residential refinance and purchase transactions increased $59.5 million and $48.8 million, or 21.2% and 6.3%, respectively, while direct premiums and escrow fees from commercial transactions decreased $35.7 million, or 5.1%, in 2016 when compared to 2015.

According to the Mortgage Bankers Association’s February 15, 2017 Mortgage Finance Forecast (the “MBA Forecast”), residential mortgage originations in the United States (based on the total dollar value of the transactions) increased 12.6% in 2016 when compared with 2015. According to the MBA Forecast, the dollar amount of purchase originations increased 9.6% and refinance originations increased 16.1%. This higher volume of domestic residential mortgage origination activity contributed to an increase in direct premiums and escrow fees for the Company’s direct title operations of 6.3% from domestic residential purchase transactions and 21.2% from domestic refinance transactions in 2016 when compared to 2015.

During 2016, the Company completed acquisitions for an aggregate purchase price of $115.3 million and these acquisitions have been included in the Company’s title insurance and services segment.  These acquisitions strengthen the Company’s core title and settlement business, and enhance the solutions the Company offers to its customers.  In addition, the acquisitions leverage the Company’s industry-leading property data to drive operational efficiencies and improve quality.

In May 2016, the Company’s board of directors terminated the Company’s funded defined benefit pension plans effective as of July 31, 2016.  In connection with the termination, the pension plans offered an alternative lump sum distribution to certain participants.  The Company recognized $66.3 million in settlement costs within the corporate segment during the fourth quarter of 2016 related to distributions of pension plan assets totaling $127.2 million to participants electing lump sum payments.  The Company expects to complete the transfer of all remaining liabilities and administrative responsibilities related to the pension plans to one or more highly rated insurance companies by the end of the second quarter of 2017 and to recognize approximately $154 million in net unrealized losses within the corporate segment in the first half of 2017.  Once the termination process is complete, the Company estimates an annual reduction of approximately $22 million in personnel costs related to the pension plans within the corporate segment, based on the level of these expenses for the year ended December 31, 2016.  For further discussion of the pension termination including the recent and expected contribution amounts and the timing of pension termination expense to be recognized, see Note 13 Employee Benefit Plans to the consolidated financial statements.

The Company believes the purchase market will continue to strengthen in 2017 as a result of the ongoing improvement in housing and the general economy.  The Company also expects the commercial market will experience a modest decline in 2017 when compared to 2016.  Additionally, the recent increase in interest rates has significantly reduced the Company’s refinance volumes.  After peaking in July 2016 at 2,700 open orders per day, the Company’s refinance volumes have declined to approximately 1,200 open orders per day in January 2017.  The Company has made and will continue to make adjustments to its cost structure in response to the lower refinance order volumes.

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In addition, the Company continues to monitor developments in its regulatory environment.  Currently, federal officials are discussing various potential changes to laws and regulations that could impact the Company’s businesses, including changes to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the reform or privatization of government-sponsored enterprises such as the Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae) and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac), and tax reform, including changes that could affect the mortgage interest deduction, among others. Changes in these areas, and more generally in the regulatory environment in which the Company and its customers operate, could impact the volume of mortgage originations in the United States and the Company’s competitive position and results of operations. At this time, the nature and impact of any future changes is unknown.

Title Insurance and Services

Direct premiums and escrow fees increased $74.9 million, or 3.9%, in 2016 from 2015 and $231.4 million, or 13.6%, in 2015 from 2014. The increase in direct premiums and escrow fees in 2016 from 2015 was primarily due to an increase in domestic title orders closed by the Company’s direct title operations, partially offset by a decrease in domestic average revenues per order closed. The increase in direct premiums and escrow fees in 2015 from 2014 was primarily due to an increase in the domestic average revenues per order closed and an increase in domestic title orders closed by the Company’s direct operations. The domestic average revenues per order closed were $1,931, $2,012 and $1,886 for 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.  The 4.0% decrease in average revenues per order closed in 2016 from 2015 was primarily due to a shift in the mix of direct revenues generated from higher premium commercial products to lower premium residential refinance products. The 6.7% increase in average revenues per order closed in 2015 from 2014 was primarily due to higher real estate values and a greater number of large commercial deals that closed when compared to the prior year, partially offset by an increase in the mix of direct revenues generated from lower premium residential refinance transactions. The Company’s direct title operations closed 958,400, 882,400 and 816,400 domestic title orders during 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively. The 8.6% increase in orders closed in 2016 from 2015 and the 8.1% increase in orders closed in 2015 from 2014 were generally consistent with the changes in residential mortgage origination activity in the United States as reported in the MBA Forecast.

Agent premiums increased $188.4 million, or 9.0%, in 2016 from 2015 and $230.9 million, or 12.4%, in 2015 from 2014. Agent premiums are recorded when notice of issuance is received from the agent, which is generally when cash payment is received by the Company. As a result, there is generally a delay between the agent’s issuance of a title policy and the Company’s recognition of agent premiums. Therefore, full year agent premiums typically reflect mortgage origination activity from the fourth quarter of the prior year through the third quarter of the current year. The increase in agent premiums in 2016 from 2015 was generally consistent with the 2.9% increase in the Company’s direct premiums and escrow fees in the twelve months ended September 30, 2016 as compared with the twelve months ended September 30, 2015. The increase in agent premiums in 2015 from 2014 was generally consistent with the 16.9% increase in the Company’s direct premiums and escrow fees in the twelve months ended September 30, 2015 as compared with the twelve months ended September 30, 2014.

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Information and other revenues primarily consist of revenues generated from fees associated with title search and related reports, title and other real property records and images, other non-insured settlement services, and risk mitigation products and services. These revenues generally trend with direct premiums and escrow fees but are typically less volatile since a portion of the revenues are subscription based and do not fluctuate with transaction volumes.

Information and other revenues increased $43.2 million, or 6.4%, in 2016 from 2015 and $15.0 million, or 2.3%, in 2015 from 2014. Excluding the $48.5 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2016, information and other revenues decreased $5.3 million, or 0.8%, in 2016 compared to 2015.  The decrease in 2016 from 2015, adjusted for the impact of new acquisitions, was due to lower demand for the Company’s default information products as a result of the decrease in domestic loss mitigation activities and lower revenue in the Company’s Australian operations due to the loss of a large customer, partially offset by higher demand for the Company’s title plant and data products.  Excluding the $23.2 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2015, information and other revenues decreased $8.2 million, or 1.2%, in 2015 compared to 2014.  The decrease in 2015 from 2014, adjusted for the impact of new acquisitions, was due to lower demand for the Company’s default information products as a result of the decrease in domestic loss mitigation activities, partially offset by higher demand for certain of the Company’s non-insured services and products, which is directionally consistent with the increase in title insurance and services segment transaction volumes and revenue.  

Net investment income increased $13.2 million, or 13.6%, in 2016 from 2015 and $37.7 million, or 63.1%, in 2015 from 2014.  The increase in 2016 from 2015 was primarily attributable to higher interest income from the investment portfolio due to higher average balances in the title insurance and services segment’s debt securities portfolio in 2016 when compared to 2015. The increase in 2015 from 2014 was primarily attributable to higher interest income from the investment portfolio primarily due to higher average balances in the title insurance and services segment’s debt securities portfolio in 2015 when compared to 2014 and lower impairment losses related to investments accounted for using the equity method when compared to 2014.  Net investment income for 2015 and 2014 included impairment losses recognized on investments accounted for using the equity method of $2.0 million and $22.5 million, respectively.  No impairment losses were recognized on investments accounted for using the equity method in 2016.

Net realized investment gains for the title insurance and services segment totaled $18.9 million for 2016 and were primarily from the sales of debt and equity securities.  Net realized investment losses were $7.4 million for 2015 and were primarily from the impairment of internally developed software and losses from the sales of equity securities, partially offset by gains from the sale of real estate.  Net realized investment gains were $23.9 million for 2014 and were primarily from the sales of debt and equity securities and the sale of real estate.  Net realized investment gains for 2016, 2015 and 2014 included $3.3 million, $9.3 million and $7.5 million, respectively, of gains from the sale of real estate, and included impairment losses of $5.2 million, $10.9 million and $2.4 million, respectively, primarily related to internally developed software.

The title insurance and services segment (primarily direct operations) is labor intensive; accordingly, a major expense component is personnel costs. This expense component is affected by two primary factors: the need to monitor personnel changes to match the level of corresponding or anticipated new orders and the need to provide quality service.

Personnel costs increased $86.4 million, or 5.8%, in 2016 from 2015 and $153.9 million, or 11.5%, in 2015 from 2014. Excluding the $38.1 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2016, personnel costs increased $48.3 million, or 3.2%, in 2016 compared to 2015. The increase in 2016, adjusted for the impact of new acquisitions, was primarily attributable to higher salary, incentive compensation, share based compensation, and employee benefits expense.  The higher salary cost was due to an increase in average salaries and, to a lesser extent, higher average headcount.  The increase in incentive compensation expense was due to higher commissions paid on higher revenues, partially offset by lower 401(k) savings plan matches.  The higher share based compensation cost was due to increased restricted stock units granted to employees during the first quarter of 2016 associated with 2015 performance.   The increase in employee benefits expense was primarily due to higher paid medical claims.  Excluding the $19.3 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2015, personnel costs increased $134.6 million, or 10.1%, in 2015 compared to 2014. The increase in 2015, adjusted for the impact of new acquisitions, was primarily attributable to higher incentive compensation costs, which include commissions, bonuses and 401(k) savings plan matches, due to higher revenue and profitability; higher salary expense due to higher headcount levels; and higher overtime and temporary labor costs driven by higher order volumes. Personnel costs included severance expense of $8.3 million, $5.6 million and $8.9 million for 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

The Company continues to closely monitor order volumes and related staffing levels and intends to adjust staffing levels as considered necessary. The Company’s direct title operations opened 1,281,400, 1,261,700 and 1,155,500 domestic title orders in 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively, representing an increase of 1.6% in 2016 from 2015 and an increase of 9.2% in 2015 from 2014.

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A summary of premiums retained by agents and agent premiums is as follows:

The premium split between underwriter and agents is in accordance with the respective agency contracts and can vary from region to region due to divergences in real estate closing practices and state regulations. As a result, the percentage of title premiums retained by agents can vary due to the geographic mix of revenues from agency operations.  The decrease in the percentage of title premiums retained by agents in 2016 from 2015 was primarily due to a change in the geographic mix of agency revenues towards lower agent-retention geographies.  The increase in the percentage of title premiums retained by agents in 2015 from 2014 was primarily due to a change in the geographic mix of agency revenues towards higher agent-retention regions, partially offset by increased revenue from the issuance of closing protection letters since agents typically do not retain a portion of this revenue.

Other operating expenses (principally related to direct operations) increased $19.1 million, or 2.6%, in 2016 from 2015 and $8.8 million, or 1.2%, in 2015 from 2014. Excluding the $14.0 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2016, other operating expenses increased $5.1 million, or 0.7%, in 2016 compared to 2015.  The increase in 2016 from 2015, adjusted for the impact of new acquisitions, was primarily attributable to higher professional services expenses and higher software related expenses, partially offset by lower bad debt expense, lower foreign currency exchange losses and a recovery on an insurance claim.  Excluding the $13.1 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2015, other operating expenses decreased $4.3 million, or 0.6%, in 2015 compared to 2014.  The decrease in 2015 from 2014, adjusted for the impact of new acquisitions, was primarily attributable to higher bank earnings credits and lower professional services expenses, partially offset by higher production related expenses driven by higher order volumes and increased software related expenses. The increase in bank earnings credits was driven by higher average balances invested with third-party financial institutions and higher average earnings credit rates associated with those investments in 2015 when compared to 2014.

The provision for policy losses and other claims, expressed as a percentage of title insurance premiums and escrow fees, was 5.5%, 6.6% and 7.1% for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

The current year rate of 5.5% reflects an ultimate loss rate of 4.5% for the current policy year and a $42.6 million net increase in loss reserve estimates for prior policy years.  The increase in loss reserve estimates for prior policy years was primarily attributable to potential uncertainty with respect to the Company’s exposure to large title claims.  A large title claim is defined as a title claim with a total ultimate loss in excess of $2.5 million.  This uncertainty is due to the following factors, among others: (i) the volatility associated with the timing and severity of large title claims, (ii) the potential of incurring one or more large title claims that significantly exceed estimated ultimate losses indicated by current historical trends, and (iii) the complexity associated with handling large title claims which makes it difficult to estimate the ultimate outcome.  While the Company believes its claims reserve attributable to large title claims is reasonable, this uncertainty increases the potential for adverse loss development.

As of December 31, 2016, the IBNR claims reserve for the title insurance and services segment was $888.1 million, which reflected management’s best estimate. The Company’s internal actuary determined a range of reasonable estimates of $718.5 million to $938.3 million. The range limits are $169.6 million below and $50.2 million above management’s best estimate, respectively, and represent an estimate of the range of variation among reasonable estimates of the IBNR reserve. Actuarial estimates are sensitive to assumptions used in models, as well as the structures of the models themselves, and to changes in claims payment and incurral patterns, which can vary materially due to economic conditions, among other factors.

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The prior year rate of 6.6% reflected an ultimate loss rate of 4.2% for policy year 2015 and a $93.1 million net increase in loss reserve estimates for prior policy years.  The increase in loss reserve estimates for prior policy years was primarily attributable to a change in methodology used by the Company’s internal actuary to estimate total ultimate losses.  Previously, the internal actuary’s model did not separate claims experience for large title claims from normal title claims activity.  With this change in methodology, the model began to separate claims experience for large title claims from normal title claims activity when developing reserve estimates.  As a result, loss reserve estimates for prior policy years increased, primarily for policy years 2004 through 2007.  The change in methodology was implemented due to the increased frequency of large title claims experienced over the prior several years and the volatility associated with the timing and severity of large title claims.  The Company accounted for this change in methodology as a change in accounting estimate.

The 2014 rate of 7.1% reflected an ultimate loss rate of 5.3% for policy year 2014 and a net increase in loss reserve estimates for prior policy years of $64.1 million. The increase in loss reserve estimates for prior policy years reflected claims development above expected levels during 2014, primarily from domestic commercial policies.  The reserve strengthening associated with domestic commercial policies was $41.4 million and was primarily attributable to several large commercial claims, net of anticipated recoveries, mainly from mechanics liens, and primarily related to policy years 2003, 2005 and 2007.  Other factors, including a large international commercial claim from policy year 2004, also contributed to the net increase in loss reserve estimates for prior policy years.

As of December 31, 2016, the projected ultimate loss ratios for policy years 2016, 2015 and 2014 were 4.5%, 4.1% and 4.8%, respectively.

Depreciation and amortization expense increased $12.7 million, or 15.8%, in 2016 from 2015 and $2.5 million, or 3.3%, in 2015 from 2014.  Excluding the $2.7 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2016, depreciation and amortization expense increased $10.0 million, or 12.4%, in 2016 compared to 2015. The increase in 2016 was primarily attributable to amortization expense associated with internally developed technology and purchased software licenses.  Excluding the $2.4 million impact of new acquisitions for the year ended December 31, 2015, depreciation and amortization expense increased $0.1 million, or 0.1%, in 2015 compared to 2014.

Insurers generally are not subject to state income or franchise taxes. However, in lieu thereof, a premium tax is imposed on certain operating revenues, as defined by statute. Tax rates and bases vary from state to state; accordingly, the total premium tax burden is dependent upon the geographical mix of operating revenues. The Company’s noninsurance subsidiaries are subject to state income tax and do not pay premium tax. Accordingly, the Company’s total tax burden at the state level for the title insurance and services segment is composed of a combination of premium taxes and state income taxes. Premium taxes as a percentage of title insurance premiums and escrow fees were 1.4% for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014.

The profit margins for the title insurance business reflect the high cost of performing the essential services required before insuring title, whereas the corresponding revenues are subject to regulatory and competitive pricing restraints. Due to this relatively high proportion of fixed costs, title insurance profit margins generally improve as closed order volumes increase. Title insurance profit margins are affected by the composition (residential or commercial) and type (resale, refinancing or new construction) of real estate activity. Title insurance profit margins are also affected by the percentage of title insurance premiums generated by agency operations. Profit margins from direct operations are generally higher than from agency operations due primarily to the large portion of the premium that is retained by the agent. The pre-tax margins were 11.7%, 10.2% and 8.7% for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

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Specialty Insurance

Direct premiums increased $31.1 million, or 8.2%, in 2016 from 2015 and $26.5 million, or 7.5%, in 2015 from 2014. The increases were driven by higher premiums earned in the home warranty business.  The increase in 2016 from 2015 in the home warranty business was in its real estate, direct to consumer and renewal channels and was driven by an increase in the price charged for home warranty residential service contracts and an increase in the number of contracts issued.  The increase in 2015 from 2014 in the home warranty business was attributable to its real estate, direct to consumer and renewal channels and was driven by an increase in the number of home warranty residential service contracts issued.

Information and other revenues increased $7.7 million, or 242.0%, in 2016 from 2015 and $0.9 million, or 40.7%, in 2015 from 2014.  The increase in 2016 was primarily due to a change in how the Company reports installment fees related to home warranty residential service contracts.  Beginning in 2016, the Company reported installment fees in information and other revenues, while prior to 2016, the Company reported installment fees as a reduction in other operating expenses.  This change resulted in an increase to information and other revenues and an increase to other operating expenses of $7.5 million in 2016 when compared to 2015.

Net investment income increased $0.6 million, or 7.1%, in 2016 from 2015 and $1.6 million, or 21.4%, in 2015 from 2014.  The increases were primarily attributable to higher interest income from the investment portfolio due to a higher average yield and higher average balances in the specialty insurance segment’s debt securities portfolio when compared to prior years.

Net realized investment gains for the specialty insurance segment totaled $4.1 million, $1.5 million and $5.3 million for 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively, and were primarily from the sales of debt and equity securities. Net realized investment gains for 2016 also included $2.3 million of gains from the sale of real estate.

Personnel costs and other operating expenses increased $14.9 million, or 12.9%, in 2016 from 2015 and $7.8 million, or 7.2%, in 2015 from 2014.  The increase in 2016 from 2015 was primarily related to a change in how the Company reports installment fees related to home warranty residential service contracts which is further discussed above, higher offshore labor expense related to increased customer support activities associated with the increased volume in the home warranty business, higher advertising expense in the home warranty business, and higher salary expense due to higher average salaries.  These increases were partially offset by a $3.5 million benefit from higher deferred acquisition costs associated with the change in how the Company reports installment fees related to home warranty residential service contracts which is further discussed above. The increase in 2015 from 2014 was primarily related to higher corporate allocations for shared services support, higher offshore labor expense related to increased customer support activities associated with the increased volume in the home warranty business, and higher advertising expense in the home warranty business.

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The provision for home warranty claims, expressed as a percentage of home warranty premiums, was 60.7% in 2016, 56.5% in 2015 and 53.3% in 2014.  The increase in rate in 2016 from 2015 was primarily attributable to higher contract servicing costs due to an increase in the frequency of higher cost claims related to increased equipment and replacement costs and less efficient claims management.  The increase in rate in 2015 from 2014 was primarily attributable to higher contract servicing costs due to an increase in the frequency of higher cost claims related to more severe weather conditions and less efficient claims management.  The efficiency of claims management was adversely impacted by the increased level of claims opened in 2016 and 2015 as a result of the higher volume of home warranty residential service contracts outstanding in 2016 and 2015.

The provision for property and casualty claims, expressed as a percentage of property and casualty insurance premiums, was 63.3% in 2016, 66.4% in 2015 and 60.1% in 2014. The decrease in rate in 2016 from 2015 was primarily attributable to lower weather-related loss events when compared to the prior year.  The increase in rate in 2015 from 2014 was primarily attributable to wildfires in northern California, hail storms in New Mexico, and an increase in the severity of claims, partially offset by a decrease in the frequency of claims.

Premium taxes as a percentage of specialty insurance segment premiums were 1.7% in 2016, 1.8% in 2015 and 1.7% in 2014.

A large part of the revenues for the specialty insurance businesses are generated by renewals and are not dependent on the level of real estate activity in the year of renewal. With the exception of loss expense, the majority of the expenses for this segment are variable in nature and therefore generally fluctuate consistent with revenue fluctuations. Accordingly, profit margins for this segment (before loss expense) are relatively constant, although as a result of some fixed expenses, profit margins (before loss expense) should nominally improve as premium revenues increase. Pre-tax margins were 9.2%, 10.0% and 14.4% for 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

Corporate

Net investment income totaled $5.9 million in 2016, a loss of $5.4 million in 2015 and income of $5.5 million in 2014. The change in net investment income for all three years is primarily attributable to fluctuations in earnings on investments associated with the Company’s deferred compensation plan.  Net investment losses for 2015 were impacted by a one-time non-cash charge of $4.0 million, recorded during the first quarter of 2015, related to the investments associated with the Company’s deferred compensation plan.

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Corporate personnel costs and other operating expenses were $137.5 million, $63.3 million and $61.1 million in 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively. The increase in 2016 was primarily attributable to a $66.3 million settlement expense recorded in the fourth quarter of 2016 related to the termination of the Company’s funded defined benefit pension plans.  For further discussion of the pension termination including the recent and expected contribution amounts and the timing of pension termination expense to be recognized, see Note 13 Employee Benefit Plans to the consolidated financial statements.  The increase in 2016 was also attributable to increased expense related to the Company’s deferred compensation plan and, to a lesser extent, higher professional services expense related to the pension termination and higher allocations from the title insurance and services segment for certain corporate services. The increase for 2015 was primarily attributable to increased expense related to the Company’s defined benefit pension and supplemental benefit plans, partially offset by decreased expense related to the Company’s deferred compensation plan.

Depreciation and amortization expense was $0.4 million, $0.5 million and $2.8 million in 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.  The decrease in 2015 was due to a noncompete asset that was fully amortized during 2014.

Interest expense increased $2.4 million in 2016 from 2015 and $9.0 million in 2015 from 2014.  Interest expense increased in 2016 primarily due to a change in how the Company reports amortization of deferred debt issuance costs.  Beginning in 2016, the Company reported amortization of deferred debt issuance costs in interest expense, while prior to 2016, the Company reported amortization of deferred debt issuance costs in other operating expenses.  This change resulted in an increase in interest expense and a decrease in other operating expenses of $2.0 million in 2016 when compared to 2015.  Interest expense also increased due to the Company borrowing $160.0 million under its credit facility during September 2016.  Interest expense increased in 2015 primarily due to the Company’s issuance of $300.0 million of debt in November 2014.  Interest expense related to an intercompany note payable to the title insurance segment was $0.4 million and $1.5 million for the years ended December 31, 2015 and 2014, respectively.  The intercompany note payable was settled during 2015.

Eliminations

Eliminations primarily represent interest income and related interest expense associated with intercompany notes between the Company’s segments, which are eliminated in the consolidated financial statements. The Company’s inter-segment eliminations were not material for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014.

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Income Taxes

Income taxes differ from the amounts computed by applying the federal income tax rate of 35.0%. A reconciliation of this difference is as follows:

The Company’s effective income tax rates (income tax expense as a percentage of income before income taxes) were 28.1% for 2016, 33.3% for 2015 and 33.2% for 2014. The differences in the effective tax rates are typically due to changes in state and foreign income taxes resulting from fluctuations in the Company’s noninsurance and foreign subsidiaries’ contribution to pretax income and changes in the ratio of permanent differences to income before income taxes. In addition, the 2016 rate reflects the resolution of certain tax authority examinations and tax credits claimed in current and prior years.  The 2015 rate includes a benefit for the release of valuation allowances previously provided against certain foreign net operating losses and other deferred tax assets.  The 2014 rate reflects non-recurring tax benefits resulting from certain adjustments to the Company’s state and non-U.S. tax accounts.

Net Income and Net Income Attributable to the Company

Net income and per share information are summarized as follows:

See Note 12 Earnings Per Share to the consolidated financial statements for further discussion of earnings per share.

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Liquidity and Capital Resources

Cash requirements.     The Company generates cash primarily from the sale of its products and services and investment income. The Company’s current cash requirements include operating expenses, taxes, payments of principal and interest on its debt, capital expenditures and dividends on its common stock, and may include business acquisitions and repurchases of its common stock. Additionally, in May 2016, the Company’s board of directors terminated the Company’s funded defined benefit pension plans effective as of July 31, 2016.  In connection with the termination, to sufficiently fund the pension plans, the Company made additional cash contributions above scheduled amounts in 2016 of $84.8 million and expects to make an additional cash contribution of approximately $23 million in the first half of 2017. The Company also expects to pay other termination related expenses. For further discussion of the pension termination and expected additional cash contributions, see Note 13 Employee Benefit Plans to the consolidated financial statements. Management forecasts the cash needs of the holding company and its primary subsidiaries and regularly reviews their short-term and long-term projected sources and uses of funds, as well as the asset, liability, investment and cash flow assumptions underlying such forecasts. Due to the Company’s ability to generate cash flows from operations, its liquid-asset position and amounts available on its revolving credit facility, management believes that its resources are sufficient to satisfy its anticipated operational cash requirements and obligations for at least the next twelve months.

The substantial majority of the Company’s business is dependent upon activity in the real estate and mortgage markets, which are cyclical and seasonal. Periods of increasing interest rates and reduced mortgage financing availability generally have an adverse effect on residential real estate activity and therefore typically decrease the Company’s revenues. In contrast, periods of declining interest rates and increased mortgage financing availability generally have a positive effect on residential real estate activity, which typically increases the Company’s revenues. Residential purchase activity is typically slower in the winter months with increased volumes in the spring and summer months. Residential refinance activity is typically more volatile than purchase activity and is highly impacted by changes in interest rates. Commercial real estate volumes are less sensitive to changes in interest rates, but fluctuate based on local supply and demand conditions for space and mortgage financing availability.

Cash provided by operating activities amounted to $489.4 million, $551.3 million and $360.6 million for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively, after claim payments, net of recoveries, of $463.0 million, $476.5 million and $469.8 million, respectively. The principal nonoperating uses of cash and cash equivalents for the year ended December 31, 2016 were purchases of debt and equity securities, capital expenditures, dividends to common stockholders and business acquisitions. The principal nonoperating uses of cash and cash equivalents for the year ended December 31, 2015 were purchases of debt and equity securities, capital expenditures and dividends to common stockholders. The principal nonoperating uses of cash and cash equivalents for the year ended December 31, 2014 were purchases of debt and equity securities, repayment of debt, business acquisitions, capital expenditures and dividends to common stockholders. The most significant nonoperating sources of cash and cash equivalents for the year ended December 31, 2016 were proceeds from the sales and maturities of debt and equity securities, increases in the deposit balances at the Company’s banking operations and net proceeds from the issuance of debt. The most significant nonoperating sources of cash and cash equivalents for the year ended December 31, 2015 were proceeds from the sales and maturities of debt and equity securities and increases in the deposit balances at the Company’s banking operations. The most significant nonoperating sources of cash and cash equivalents for the year ended December 31, 2014 were proceeds from the sales and maturities of debt and equity securities, increases in the deposit balances at the Company’s banking operations, proceeds from the issuance of debt and paydowns and net proceeds related to the sale of loans receivable. The net effect of all activities on total cash and cash equivalents was a decrease of $21.2 million, a decrease of $162.8 million, and an increase of $355.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

The Company continually assesses its capital allocation strategy, including decisions relating to dividends, stock repurchases, capital expenditures, acquisitions and investments.  In August 2016, the Company’s board of directors approved an increase in the Company’s quarterly cash dividend to 34 cents per common share, representing a 31% increase from the prior level of 26 cents per common share.  The dividend increase became effective beginning with the September 2016 dividend. In January 2017, the Company’s board of directors approved a first quarter cash dividend of 34 cents per common share.  Management expects that the Company will continue to pay quarterly cash dividends at or above the current level. The timing, declaration and payment of future dividends, however, falls within the discretion of the Company’s board of directors and will depend upon many factors, including the Company’s financial condition and earnings, the capital requirements of the Company’s businesses, restrictions imposed by applicable law and any other factors the board of directors deems relevant from time to time.

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In March 2014, the Company’s board of directors approved an increase in the size of the Company’s stock repurchase plan from $150.0 million to $250.0 million, of which $182.4 million remained as of December 31, 2016. Purchases may be made from time to time by the Company in the open market at prevailing market prices or in privately negotiated transactions. During the year ended December 31, 2016, the Company repurchased and retired 14 thousand shares of its common stock for a total purchase price of $454 thousand and, as of December 31, 2016, had repurchased and retired 3.2 million shares of its common stock under the current authorization for a total purchase price of $67.6 million.

Holding company.     First American Financial Corporation is a holding company that conducts all of its operations through its subsidiaries. The holding company’s current cash requirements include payments of principal and interest on its debt, taxes, payments in connection with employee benefit plans, dividends on its common stock and other expenses. The holding company is dependent upon dividends and other payments from its operating subsidiaries to meet its cash requirements. The Company’s target is to maintain a cash balance at the holding company equal to at least twelve months of estimated cash requirements. At certain points in time, the actual cash balance at the holding company may vary from this target due to, among other factors, the timing and amount of cash payments made and dividend payments received. Pursuant to insurance and other regulations under which the Company’s insurance subsidiaries operate, the amount of dividends, loans and advances available to the holding company is limited, principally for the protection of policyholders. As of December 31, 2016, under such regulations, the maximum amount of dividends, loans and advances available to the holding company from its insurance subsidiaries in 2017, without prior approval from applicable regulators, was $761.8 million. However, the timing and amount of dividends paid by the Company’s insurance subsidiaries to the holding company falls within the discretion of each insurance subsidiary’s board of directors and will depend upon many factors, including the level of total statutory capital and surplus required to support minimum financial strength ratings by certain rating agencies. Such restrictions have not had, nor are they expected to have, an impact on the holding company’s ability to meet its cash obligations.

As of December 31, 2016, the holding company’s sources of liquidity included $221.5 million of cash and cash equivalents and $540.0 million available on the Company’s revolving credit facility. Management believes that liquidity at the holding company is sufficient to satisfy anticipated cash requirements and obligations for at least the next twelve months.

Financing.      The Company maintains a credit agreement with JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A. in its capacity as administrative agent and the lenders party thereto. The credit agreement is comprised of a $700.0 million revolving credit facility. Unless terminated earlier, the revolving loan commitments under the credit agreement will terminate on May 14, 2019. The obligations of the Company under the credit agreement are neither secured nor guaranteed. Proceeds under the credit agreement may be used for general corporate purposes.

In September 2016, the Company borrowed $160.0 million under the credit facility to fund acquisitions and to partially fund its obligation in connection with the termination of its funded defined benefit pension plans. At December 31, 2016, outstanding borrowings under the facility totaled $160.0 million at an interest rate of 2.52%. See Note 20 Business Combinations to the consolidated financial statements for further discussion of the Company’s acquisitions, and see Note 13 Employee Benefit Plans to the consolidated financial statements for further discussion of the Company’s pension termination.

The credit agreement includes an expansion option that permits the Company, subject to satisfaction of certain conditions, to increase the revolving commitments and/or add term loan tranches (“Incremental Term Loans”) in an aggregate amount not to exceed $150.0 million. Incremental Term Loans, if made, may not mature prior to the revolving commitment termination date, provided that amortization may occur prior to such date.

At the Company’s election, borrowings under the credit agreement bear interest at (a) the Alternate Base Rate plus the applicable spread or (b) the Adjusted LIBOR rate plus the applicable spread (in each case as defined in the agreement). The Company may select interest periods of one, two, three or six months or (if agreed to by all lenders) such other number of months for Eurodollar borrowings of loans. The applicable spread varies depending upon the debt rating assigned by Moody’s Investor Service, Inc. (“Moody’s”) and/or Standard & Poor’s Rating Services (“S&P”). The minimum applicable spread for Alternate Base Rate borrowings is 0.625% and the maximum is 1.00%. The minimum applicable spread for Adjusted LIBOR rate borrowings is 1.625% and the maximum is 2.00%. The rate of interest on Incremental Term Loans will be established at or about the time such loans are made and may differ from the rate of interest on revolving loans.

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The credit agreement includes representations and warranties, reporting covenants, affirmative covenants, negative covenants, financial covenants and events of default customary for financings of this type. Upon the occurrence of an event of default the lenders may accelerate the loans. Upon the occurrence of certain insolvency and bankruptcy events of default the loans will automatically accelerate. As of December 31, 2016, the Company was in compliance with the financial covenants under the credit agreement.

In addition to amounts available under its credit facility, certain subsidiaries of the Company are parties to master repurchase agreements which are used as part of the Company’s liquidity management activities and to support its risk management activities. In particular, securities loaned or sold under repurchase agreements may be used as short-term funding sources. During 2016, the Company financed securities for funds received totaling $39.2 million under these agreements. As of December 31, 2016, no amounts remained outstanding under these agreements.

Notes and contracts payable as a percentage of total capitalization was 19.6% and 17.4% at December 31, 2016 and 2015, respectively. Notes and contracts payable are further described in Note 9 Notes and Contracts Payable to the consolidated financial statements.

Investment portfolio.     The Company maintains a high quality, liquid investment portfolio that is primarily held at its insurance and banking subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2016, 92% of the Company’s investment portfolio consisted of fixed income securities, of which 60% were United States government-backed or rated AAA and 94% were rated or classified as investment grade. Percentages are based on the estimated fair values of the securities. Credit ratings reflect published ratings obtained from S&P, DBRS, Inc., Fitch Ratings, Inc. and Moody’s. If a security was rated differently among the rating agencies, the lowest rating was selected. For further information on the credit quality of the Company’s investment portfolio at December 31, 2016, see Note 3 Debt and Equity Securities to the consolidated financial statements.

In addition to its debt and equity investment securities portfolio, the Company maintains certain money-market and other short-term investments.

Capital expenditures.    Capital expenditures primarily consist of software development costs, additions to property and equipment, additions to title plants and purchases of real estate data. Capital expenditures were $132.3 million, $127.6 million and $99.4 million for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively. The increase in 2016 from 2015 primarily related to the Company’s adoption of the change in accounting treatment for internal-use software licenses in 2016, partially offset by lower spending in property and equipment, software, title plants, and real estate data. The increase in 2015 from 2014 primarily reflected increased spending in 2015 on software, real estate data, title plants and property and equipment. The increase in software in 2015 was mainly driven by the Company’s effort to comply with the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau’s TILA-RESPA integrated disclosure rule.

Contractual obligations.    A summary of the Company’s contractual obligations at December 31, 2016, by due date, is as follows: