Robinhood Markets, Inc. - Quarter Report: 2023 June (Form 10-Q)

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

______________________

FORM 10-Q

______________________

(Mark One)


☒			QUARTERLY REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the quarterly period ended June 30, 2023


☐			TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the transition period from ________ to ________

Commission File Number: 001-40691

______________________

Robinhood Markets, Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

______________________


Delaware						46-4364776
(State or other jurisdiction of incorporation or organization)						(IRS Employer Identification No.)

85 Willow Rd

Menlo Park, CA 94025

(Address of principal executive offices, including zip code)

(844) 428-5411

(Registrant’s telephone number, including area code)

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:


Title of each class	Trading Symbol	Name of each exchange on which registered
Class A Common Stock $0.0001 par value per share	HOOD	The Nasdaq Stock Market LLC

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No o

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ý No o

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

Large accelerated filer ý Accelerated filer o Non-accelerated filer o Smaller reporting company ☐ Emerging growth company ☐

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes o No ☒

As of July 28, 2023, the numbers of shares of the issuer’s Class A and Class B common stock outstanding were 784,178,895 and 127,168,211.

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PART I - FINANCIAL INFORMATION		PAGE
ITEM 1.	Unaudited Financial Statements
	Condensed Consolidated Balance Sheets	5
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Operations	6
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss	7
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows	8
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ (Deficit) Equity	9
	Notes to Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements
	Note 1 - Description of Business and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies	11
	Note 2 - Recent Accounting Pronouncements	14
	Note 3 - Business Combinations	14
	Note 4 - Revenues	15
	Note 5 - Restructuring Activities	16
	Note 6 - Allowance for Credit Losses	16
	Note 7 - Investments and Fair Value Measurement	17
	Note 8 - Derivatives and Hedging Activities	20
	Note 9 - Income Taxes	21
	Note 10 - Securities Borrowing and Lending	22
	Note 1 1 - Financing Activities and Off-Balance Sheet Risk	23
	Note 1 2 - Common Stock and Stockholders' (Deficit) Equity	25
	Note 1 3 - Net Income (Loss) per Share	28
	Note 1 4 - Related Party Transactions	30
	Note 1 5 - Leases	30
	Note 1 6 - Commitments & Contingencies	30

ITEM 2.	Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations	36
ITEM 3.	Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk	51
ITEM 4.	Controls and Procedures	53

PART II - OTHER INFORMATION
ITEM 1.	Legal Proceedings	54
ITEM 1A.	Risk Factors	55
ITEM 2.	Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds	105
ITEM 3.	Defaults Upon Senior Securities	106
ITEM 4.	Mine Safety Disclosures	106
ITEM 5.	Other Information	106
ITEM 6.	Exhibit Index	107
	Signatures	108

CAUTIONARY NOTE REGARDING FORWARD‑LOOKING STATEMENTS

This Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q (this “Quarterly Report”) of Robinhood Markets, Inc (together with its subsidiaries, “we”, “Robinhood”, or the “Company”) contains forward-looking statements (as such phrase is used in the federal securities laws), which involve substantial risks and uncertainties. Forward-looking statements generally relate to future events or our future financial or operating performance. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements because they contain words such as “believe,” “may,” “will,” “should,” “expect,” “plan,” “anticipate,” “could,” “intend,” “target,” “project,” “contemplate,” “estimate,” “predict,” “potential”, or “continue” or the negative of these words or other similar terms or expressions that concern our expectations, strategy, plans or intentions. This Quarterly Report includes, among others, forward-looking statements regarding:

•our expectations regarding legal and regulatory proceedings and investigations;

•our goal to offer brokerage services in the U.K. by the end of 2023 and our intent to continue expanding our operations outside of the United States;

•our expectations for no credit losses for our held-to-maturity investments that are obligations of states and political subdivisions and securities issued by U.S. government sponsored agencies; and

•our belief that, based on our current level of operations, our primary sources of liquidity will be adequate to meet our current liquidity needs for the next 12 months.

Our forward-looking statements are subject to a number of known and unknown risks, uncertainties, assumptions, and other factors that may cause our actual future results, performance, or achievements to differ materially from any future results expressed or implied in this Quarterly Report. Reported results should not be considered an indication of future performance. Factors that contribute to the uncertain nature of our forward-looking statements include, among others:

•our limited operating experience at our current scale;

•the difficulty of managing our business effectively, including the size of our workforce, and the risk of continued declining or negative growth;

•the fluctuations in our financial results and key metrics from quarter to quarter;

•our reliance on transaction-based revenue, including payment for order flow (“PFOF”), and the risk of new regulation or bans on PFOF and similar practices;

•our exposure to fluctuations in interest rates and rapidly changing interest rate environments;

•the difficulty of raising additional capital (to provide liquidity needs and support business growth and objectives) on reasonable terms, if at all;

•the need to maintain capital levels required by regulators and self-regulatory organizations (“SROs”);

•the risk that we might mishandle the cash, securities, and cryptocurrencies we hold on behalf of customers, and our exposure to liability for processing, operational, or technical errors in clearing functions;

•the impact of negative publicity on our brand and reputation;

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•the risk that changes in business, economic, or political conditions that impact the global financial markets, or a systemic market event, might harm our business;

•our dependence on key employees and a skilled workforce;

•the difficulty of complying with an extensive, complex, and changing regulatory environment and the need to adjust our business model in response to new or modified laws and regulations;

•the possibility of adverse developments in pending litigation and regulatory investigations;

•the effects of competition;

•our need to innovate and invest in new products and services in order to attract and retain customers and deepen their engagement with us in order to maintain growth;

•our reliance on third parties to perform some key functions and the risk that processing, operational or technological failures could impair the availability or stability of our platform;

•the risk of cybersecurity incidents, theft, data breaches, and other online attacks;

•the difficulty of processing customer data in compliance with privacy laws;

•our need as a regulated financial services company to develop and maintain effective compliance and risk management infrastructures;

•the volatility of cryptocurrency prices and trading volumes;

•the risk that our platform and services could be exploited to facilitate illegal payments; and

•the risk that substantial future sales of Class A common stock in the public market, or the perception that they may occur, could cause the price of our stock to fall.

Because some of these risks and uncertainties cannot be predicted or quantified and some are beyond our control, you should not rely on our forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. More information about potential risks and uncertainties that could affect our business and financial results is included in the section of this Quarterly Report titled “Risk Factors” and our other filings with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”), which are available on the SEC’s web site at www.sec.gov. Moreover, we operate in a very competitive and rapidly changing environment; new risks and uncertainties may emerge from time to time and it is not possible for us to predict all risks nor identify all uncertainties. The events and circumstances reflected in our forward-looking statements might not be achieved and actual results could differ materially from those projected in the forward-looking statements. Except as otherwise noted, all forward-looking statements are made as of the date we file this Quarterly Report, and are based on information and estimates available to us at this time. Although we believe that the expectations reflected in our forward-looking statements are reasonable, we cannot guarantee future results, performance, or achievements. Except as required by law, Robinhood assumes no obligation to update any of the statements in this Quarterly Report whether as a result of any new information, future events, changed circumstances, or otherwise. You should read this Quarterly Report with the understanding that our actual future results, performance, events, and circumstances might be materially different from what we expect.

We use the "Overview" tab of our Investor Relations website (accessible at investors.robinhood.com/overview) and its Newsroom, (accessible at newsroom.aboutrobinhood.com), as means of disclosing information to the public in a broad, non-exclusionary manner for purposes of the SEC’s Regulation Fair Disclosure (“Reg. FD”). Investors should routinely monitor those web pages, in addition to our press releases, SEC filings, and public conference calls and webcasts, as information posted on them could be deemed to be material information. Visitors to Robinhood’s blog, Under the Hood (accessible at

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blog.robinhood.com), which it had used for this purpose, will be redirected to its Newsroom. The contents of our websites are not intended to be incorporated by reference into this Quarterly Report or in any other report or document we file with the SEC, and any references to our websites are intended to be inactive textual references only.

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ROBINHOOD MARKETS, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEETS

(Unaudited)


	December 31,		June 30,
(in millions, except share and per share data)	2022		2023
Assets
Current assets:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	6,339	$	5,829
Cash segregated under federal and other regulations	2,995		4,220
Receivables from brokers, dealers, and clearing organizations	76		117
Receivables from users, net	3,218		3,313
Securities borrowed	517		960
Deposits with clearing organizations	186		223
Asset related to user cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation	8,431		11,503
User-held fractional shares	997		1,409

Held-to-maturity investments	—		321
Prepaid expenses	86		88
Other current assets	72		123
Total current assets	22,917		28,106
Property, software, and equipment, net	146		131
Goodwill	100		100
Intangible assets, net	25		21


Non-current held-to-maturity investments	—		165
Non-current prepaid expenses	17		6
Other non-current assets	132		131
Total assets	$	23,337	$	28,660
Liabilities and stockholders’ equity
Current liabilities:
Accounts payable and accrued expenses	$	185	$	236
Payables to users	4,701		5,111
Securities loaned	1,834		2,982
User cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation	8,431		11,503
Fractional shares repurchase obligation	997		1,409

Other current liabilities	105		115
Total current liabilities	16,253		21,356

Other non-current liabilities	128		117
Total liabilities	16,381		21,473
Commitments and contingencies (Note 16)


Stockholders’ equity:
Preferred stock, $0.0001 par value. 210,000,000 shares authorized, no shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023.	—		—
Class A common stock, $0.0001 par value. 21,000,000,000 shares authorized, 764,888,917 shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2022; 21,000,000,000 shares authorized, 782,433,899 shares issued and outstanding as of June 30, 2023.	—		—
Class B common stock, $0.0001 par value. 700,000,000 shares authorized; 127,862,654 shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2022; 700,000,000 shares authorized, 127,260,803 shares issued and outstanding as of June 30, 2023.	—		—
Class C common stock, $0.0001 par value. 7,000,000,000 shares authorized, no shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023.	—		—
Additional paid-in capital	11,861		12,581
Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss)	—		(3)
Accumulated deficit	(4,905)		(5,391)
Total stockholders’ equity	6,956		7,187
Total liabilities and stockholders’ equity	$	23,337	$	28,660

See Accompanying Notes to the Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ROBINHOOD MARKETS, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF OPERATIONS

(Unaudited)


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions, except share and per share data)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Revenues:
Transaction-based revenues	$	202	$	193	$	420	$	400
Net interest revenues	74		234		129		442
Other revenues	42		59		68		85
Total net revenues	318		486		617		927

Operating expenses:
Brokerage and transaction	30		39		61		75
Technology and development	245		207		513		406
Operations	86		36		177		78
Marketing	23		25		55		51
General and administrative	226		159		494		806
Total operating expenses	610		466		1,300		1,416


Other (income) expense, net	2		(2)		2		(2)
Income (loss) before income taxes	(294)		22		(685)		(487)
Provision for (benefit from) income taxes	1		(3)		2		(1)
Net income (loss)	$	(295)	$	25	$	(687)	$	(486)
Net income (loss) attributable to common stockholders:
Basic	$	(295)	$	25	$	(687)	$	(486)
Diluted	$	(295)	$	25	$	(687)	$	(486)
Net income (loss) per share attributable to common stockholders:
Basic	$	(0.34)	$	0.03	$	(0.79)	$	(0.54)
Diluted	$	(0.34)	$	0.03	$	(0.79)	$	(0.54)
Weighted-average shares used to compute net income (loss) per share attributable to common stockholders:
Basic	874,873,301		904,984,863		871,343,295		900,977,045
Diluted	874,873,301		921,269,749		871,343,295		900,977,045

See Accompanying Notes to the Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ROBINHOOD MARKETS, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF COMPREHENSIVE INCOME (LOSS)

(Unaudited)


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Net income (loss)	$	(295)	$	25	$	(687)	$	(486)
Other comprehensive loss, net of tax:

Foreign currency translation	—		—		(1)		—



Net loss on hedging instruments	—		(3)		—		(3)
Total other comprehensive loss, net of tax	—		(3)		(1)		(3)
Total comprehensive income (loss)	$	(295)	$	22	$	(688)	$	(489)

See Accompanying Notes to the Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ROBINHOOD MARKETS, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS

(Unaudited)


	Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023
Operating activities:
Net income (loss)	$	(687)	$	(486)
Adjustments to reconcile net income (loss) to net cash provided by (used in) operating activities:
Depreciation and amortization	29		35

Provision for credit losses	19		15
Share-based compensation	384		707



Changes in operating assets and liabilities:

Securities segregated under federal and other regulations	(20)		—
Receivables from brokers, dealers, and clearing organizations	(1)		(41)
Receivables from users, net	2,473		(111)
Securities borrowed	(66)		(443)
Deposits with clearing organizations	39		(37)

Current and non-current prepaid expenses	11		9
Other current and non-current assets	(9)		(58)
Accounts payable and accrued expenses	(7)		51
Payables to users	(680)		410
Securities loaned	(2,284)		1,148

Other current and non-current liabilities	(27)		(1)
Net cash provided by (used in) operating activities	(826)		1,198
Investing activities:
Purchase of property, software, and equipment	(19)		—
Capitalization of internally developed software	(14)		(9)

Purchase of available-for-sale investments	(27)		—
Proceeds from maturities of available-for-sale investments	5		10
Purchase of held-to-maturity investments	—		(485)
Proceeds from maturities of held-to-maturity investments	—		2
Other	(5)		—

Net cash used in investing activities	(60)		(482)
Financing activities:

Proceeds from issuance of common stock under the Employee Stock Purchase Plan	13		9
Taxes paid related to net share settlement of equity awards	(7)		(5)

Payments of debt issuance costs	(10)		(10)
Draws on credit facilities	11		10
Repayments on credit facilities	(11)		(10)

Proceeds from exercise of stock options, net of repurchases	5		2
Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities	1		(4)
Effect of foreign exchange rate changes on cash and cash equivalents	—		—
Net increase (decrease) in cash, cash equivalents, segregated cash and restricted cash	(885)		712
Cash, cash equivalents, segregated cash and restricted cash, beginning of the period	10,270		9,357
Cash, cash equivalents, segregated cash and restricted cash, end of the period	$	9,385	$	10,069
Cash and cash equivalents, end of the period	$	5,962	$	5,829
Segregated cash, end of the period	3,400		4,220
Restricted cash (current and non-current), end of the period	23		20
Cash, cash equivalents, segregated cash and restricted cash, end of the period	$	9,385	$	10,069
Supplemental disclosures:
Cash paid for interest	$	6	$	6
Cash paid for income taxes, net of refund received	$	3	$	2

See Accompanying Notes to the Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ROBINHOOD MARKETS, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF STOCKHOLDERS’ (DEFICIT) EQUITY

(Unaudited)


	Common stock			Additional paid-in capital			Accumulated other comprehensive income			Accumulated deficit			Total stockholders’ (deficit) equity
(in millions, except for number of shares)		Shares				Amount
Balance as of March 31, 2022		869,808,009		$	—		$	11,400		$	—		$	(4,269)	$	7,131
Net loss		—		—			—			—			(295)		(295)
Shares issued in connection with stock option exercise, net of repurchases		424,596		—			1			—			—		1

Issuance of common stock in connection with Employee Stock Purchase Plan		1,529,727		—			13			—			—		13
Issuance of common stock upon settlement of restricted stock units, net of shares withheld		6,494,832		—			(4)			—			—		(4)





Share-based compensation		—	0	—		0	171		0	—		0	—		171
Balance as of June 30, 2022		878,257,164		$	—		$	11,581		$	—		$	(4,564)	$	7,017


	Common stock			Additional paid-in capital			Accumulated other comprehensive loss			Accumulated deficit			Total stockholders’ (deficit) equity
(in millions, except for number of shares)		Shares				Amount
Balance as of March 31, 2023		900,241,522		$	—		$	12,462		$	—		$	(5,416)	$	7,046
Net income		—		—			—			—			25		25
Shares issued in connection with stock option exercise, net of repurchases		294,104		—			1			—			—		1
Issuance of common stock in connection with Employee Stock Purchase Plan		1,225,069	—	—		—	9		—	—		—	—		9
Issuance of common stock upon settlement of restricted stock units, net of shares withheld		7,934,007		—			(3)			—			—		(3)


Change in other comprehensive loss		—		—			—			(3)			—		(3)
Share-based compensation		—		—			112			—			—		112
Balance as of June 30, 2023		909,694,702		$	—		$	12,581		$	(3)		$	(5,391)	$	7,187

See Accompanying Notes to the Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ROBINHOOD MARKETS, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF STOCKHOLDERS’ (DEFICIT) EQUITY

(Unaudited)


	Common stock		Additional paid-in capital			Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss)		Accumulated deficit		Total stockholders’ (deficit) equity
(in millions, except for number of shares)		Shares			Amount
Balance as of December 31, 2021		863,912,613	$	—		$	11,169	$	1	$	(3,877)	$	7,293
Net loss		—	—			—		—		(687)		(687)
Shares issued in connection with stock option exercise, net of repurchases		1,862,954	—			5		—		—		5

Issuance of common stock in connection with Employee Stock Purchase Plan		1,529,727	—			13		—		—		13
Issuance of common stock upon settlement of restricted stock units, net of shares withheld		10,951,870	—			(7)		—		—		(7)
Change in other comprehensive loss		—	—			—		(1)		—		(1)
Share-based compensation		—	—			401		—		—		401
Balance as of June 30, 2022		878,257,164	$	—		$	11,581	$	—	$	(4,564)	$	7,017


	Common stock		Additional paid-in capital			Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss)		Accumulated deficit		Total stockholders’ (deficit) equity
(in millions, except for number of shares)		Shares			Amount
Balance as of December 31, 2022		892,751,571	$	—		$	11,861	$	—	$	(4,905)	$	6,956
Net loss		—	—			—		—		(486)		(486)
Shares issued in connection with stock option exercise, net of repurchases		796,966	—			2		—		—		2
Issuance of common stock in connection with Employee Stock Purchase Plan		1,225,069	—			9		—		—		9
Issuance of common stock upon settlement of restricted stock units, net of shares withheld		14,921,096	—			(5)		—		—		(5)

Change in other comprehensive loss		—	—			—		(3)		—		(3)
Share-based compensation		—	—			714		—		—		714
Balance as of June 30, 2023		909,694,702	$	—		$	12,581	$	(3)	$	(5,391)	$	7,187

See Accompanying Notes to the Unaudited Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ROBINHOOD MARKETS, INC.

NOTES TO THE CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

(unaudited)

NOTE 1: DESCRIPTION OF BUSINESS AND SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES

Robinhood Markets, Inc. (“RHM” and, together with its subsidiaries, “Robinhood,” the “Company,” “we,” or “us”) was incorporated in the State of Delaware on November 22, 2013. Our most significant, wholly-owned subsidiaries are:

•Robinhood Financial LLC (“RHF”), a registered introducing broker-dealer;

•Robinhood Securities, LLC (“RHS”), a registered clearing broker-dealer;

•Robinhood Crypto, LLC (“RHC”), which provides users the ability to buy, sell, and transfer cryptocurrencies and is responsible for the custody of user cryptocurrencies held on our platform; and

•Robinhood Money, LLC (“RHY”), which offers a pre-paid debit card (the “Robinhood Cash Card”) and a spending account that help customers invest, save, and earn rewards.

Acting as the agent of the user, we facilitate the purchase and sale of options, cryptocurrencies, and equities through our platform by routing transactions through market makers, who are responsible for trade execution. Upon execution of a trade, users are legally required to purchase options, cryptocurrencies, or equities for cash from the transaction counterparty or to sell options, cryptocurrencies, or equities for cash to the transaction counterparty, depending on the transaction. We facilitate and confirm trades only when there are binding, matched legal obligations from the user and the market maker on both sides of the trade. Our users have ownership of the securities they transact on our platform, including those that collateralize margin loans, and, as a result, such securities are not presented on our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets, other than user-held fractional shares which are presented gross. Our users also have ownership of the cryptocurrencies they transact on our platform (none of which are allowed to be purchased on margin and which do not serve as collateral for margin loans), and we recognize a liability to reflect our safeguarding obligation along with a corresponding asset on our balance sheet related to the cryptocurrencies we hold in custody for users.

Basis of Presentation

The accompanying unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States (“GAAP”) and pursuant to the rules and regulations of the SEC for interim financial reporting. The condensed consolidated financial statements are unaudited, and in management’s opinion, include all adjustments, including normal recurring adjustments and accruals necessary for a fair presentation of the results for the interim periods presented. Operating results for the periods presented are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for the full fiscal year ending December 31, 2023 or any future period. These unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements should be read in conjunction with the audited annual consolidated financial statements and notes included in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2022 (“2022 Form 10-K”).

There have been no material changes in our significant accounting policies as described in our audited consolidated financial statements included in our 2022 Form 10-K. The unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements include the accounts of RHM and its wholly-owned subsidiaries. All intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated.

Certain prior-period amounts have been reclassified to conform to the current period’s presentation. The impact of these reclassifications is immaterial to the presentation of the unaudited condensed

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consolidated financial statements and had no impact on previously reported total assets, total liabilities and net loss.

During the three months ended March 31, 2023, we reorganized our management reporting structure from a single entity-level reporting unit into four reporting units. As a result, we performed a goodwill impairment assessment immediately before and after the reorganization. This quantitative assessment did not result in impairment, considering the fair value of each reporting unit was substantially in excess of the corresponding carrying amount of net assets. We continue to operate and report financial information in one operating segment.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in accordance with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts in the unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes. We base our estimates on historical experience, and other assumptions we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Assumptions and estimates used in preparing our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements include, but are not limited to, those related to revenue recognition and share-based compensation, the determination of allowances for credit losses, valuation of user cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation and corresponding asset, investment valuation, capitalization of internally developed software, useful lives of property, software, and equipment, valuation and useful lives of intangible assets, incremental borrowing rate used to calculate operating lease right-of-use assets and related liabilities, impairment of long-lived assets, determination of hedge effectiveness, uncertain tax positions, income taxes, accrued and contingent liabilities. Actual results could differ from these estimates and could have a material adverse effect on our operating results.

Concentrations of Revenue and Credit Risk

Concentrations of Revenue

We derived transaction-based revenues from individual market makers in excess of 10% of total revenues, as follows:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
	2022		2023		2022		2023
Market maker:
Citadel Securities, LLC	19	%	12	%	21	%	13	%
Entities affiliated with Susquehanna International Group, LLP(1)	9	%	3	%	11	%	4	%

B2C2 USA Inc.	10	%	2	%	9	%	2	%


All others individually less than 10%	25	%	21	%	27	%	22	%
Total as percentage of total revenue:	63	%	38	%	68	%	41	%

________________

(1)Consists of Global Execution Brokers, LP and G1 Execution Services, LLC

Concentrations of Credit Risk

We are engaged in various trading and brokerage activities in which the counterparties primarily include broker-dealers, banks, and other financial institutions. In the event our counterparties do not fulfill their obligations, we may be exposed to risk. The risk of default depends on the creditworthiness of the counterparty. Default of a counterparty in equities and options trades, which are facilitated through clearinghouses, would generally be spread among the clearinghouse's members rather than falling entirely on us. It is our policy to review, as necessary, the credit standing of each counterparty.

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In March 2023, certain U.S. banks failed and were taken over by the U.S. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (“FDIC”). Our exposure to impacted U.S. banks was immaterial. However, we took steps to help ensure that the loss of all or a significant portion of any uninsured amount would not have had an adverse effect on our ability to pay our operational expenses or make other payments.

Investments

We invest in marketable debt securities and determine the classification at the time of purchase.

Available-for-sale investments are recorded at fair value. We have elected the fair value option for our available-for-sale investments as we believe carrying these investments at fair value and taking changes in fair value through earnings best reflects their underlying economics. Fair value adjustments are presented in other expense (income), net and interest earned on the debt securities as net interest revenues in our unaudited condensed consolidated statements of operations.

Held-to-maturity investments are securities that we have both the ability and positive intent to hold until maturity and are recorded at amortized cost. Interest income is calculated using the effective interest method, adjusted for deferred fees or costs, premium, or discount existing at the date of purchase. Interest earned is included in net interest revenues in our unaudited condensed consolidated statements of operations. We evaluate held-to-maturity investment for credit losses on a quarterly basis. We do not expect credit losses for our held-to-maturity investments that are obligations of states and political subdivisions and securities issued by U.S. government sponsored agencies. We monitor remaining securities by type and standard credit rating. There was no reserve for credit losses as of June 30, 2023.

Derivatives and Hedging Activities

All derivatives are recorded at fair value. The accounting for changes in the fair value of derivatives depends on the intended use of the derivative, whether we have elected to designate the derivative in a hedging relationship and whether the hedging relationship has satisfied the criteria necessary to apply hedge accounting if elected. As part of our interest rate risk management strategy, we use interest rate floors designated as cash flow hedges which involve the receipt of offsetting cash flows from a counterparty if interest rates fall below the strike rate on the contract in exchange for an up-front premium. Changes in fair value of the cash flow hedges are recognized in accumulated other comprehensive income (“AOCI”) and are subsequently reclassified to net interest revenues as interest payments are received on the hedged item. We assess hedge effectiveness on a quarterly basis to ensure all hedges remain highly effective. If the derivative financial instruments designated as cash flow hedges are deemed ineffective, changes in the fair value of the derivative financial instrument are recognized directly in net interest revenues.

We are exposed to credit risk if counterparties to our derivative contracts do not perform pursuant to the terms of our interest rate floors. Should a counterparty fail to perform under the terms of our interest rate floors, our credit exposure is limited to the net positive fair value and accrued interest owed from the failing counterparty. We mitigate counterparty credit risk through credit approvals, credit limits and monitoring procedures, as appropriate.

We enter into master netting agreements with counterparties that permit the net settlement of amounts owed under the derivative contracts. The master netting agreements generally provide for net settlement of all outstanding contracts with a counterparty in the case of an event of default or a termination event. We do not offset fair value amounts recognized for derivative instruments under master netting arrangements. Our derivative contracts do not require collateral to be posted by us or the counterparties.

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NOTE 2: RECENT ACCOUNTING PRONOUNCEMENTS

Recently Adopted Accounting Pronouncements

There are no recently adopted accounting pronouncements that are material to us as of June 30, 2023.

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements Not Yet Adopted

There are no new accounting pronouncements that we have not yet adopted that are material to us as of June 30, 2023.

NOTE 3: BUSINESS COMBINATIONS

Acquisition of X1

On June 21, 2023, we entered into a definitive agreement to acquire all of the outstanding equity of X1 Inc. (“X1”), a U.S.-based company that offers a no-fee credit card with rewards on each purchase. The aggregate consideration to be paid in cash is approximately $104 million, subject to customary purchase price adjustments set forth in the definitive agreement and customary closing conditions.

On July 3, 2023, we completed the acquisition of X1. We are currently evaluating purchase price allocation.

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NOTE 4: REVENUES

Disaggregation of Revenues

The following table presents our revenue disaggregated by revenue source:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Transaction-based revenues:
Options	$	113	$	127	$	240	$	260
Cryptocurrencies	58		31		112		69
Equities	29		25		65		52
Other	2		10		3		19
Total transaction-based revenues	202		193		420		400

Net interest revenues:
Interest on corporate cash and investments	10		74		11		142
Margin interest	39		57		74		110
Interest on segregated cash and cash equivalents and deposits	6		52		7		97
Securities lending, net	23		27		47		53
Cash sweep	2		29		2		51
Interest expenses related to credit facilities	(6)		(5)		(12)		(11)
Total net interest revenues	74		234		129		442

Other revenues	42		59		68		85

Total net revenues	$	318	$	486	$	617	$	927

For our fully-paid securities lending program under which we borrow fully-paid shares from participating users and lend them to third parties (“Fully-Paid Securities Lending”), we earn revenue for lending certain securities based on demand for those securities and portions of such revenues are paid to participating users, and those payments are recorded as interest expense. For the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, such interest revenue earned was $13 million and $23 million and such interest expenses paid to participating users was $1 million and $3 million. The program was launched during the three months ended June 30, 2022 and such interest revenue earned and interest expenses paid to participating users in those periods were immaterial.

Contract Balances

Contract receivables are recognized when we have an unconditional right to invoice and receive payment under a contract and are derecognized when cash is received. Transaction-based revenue receivables due from market makers are reported in receivables from brokers, dealers, and clearing organizations while other revenue receivables related to proxy revenues due from issuers are reported in other current assets on the unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets.

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Contract liabilities, which consist of unearned subscription revenue, are recognized when users remit cash payments in advance of the time we satisfy our performance obligations and are recorded as other current liabilities on the unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets.

The table below sets forth contract receivables and liabilities for the period indicated:


(in millions)	Contract Receivables		Contract Liabilities
Beginning of period, January 1, 2023	$	60	$	3
End of period, June 30, 2023	101		3
Changes during the period	$	41	$	—

The difference between the opening and ending balances of our contract receivables primarily results from increased revenues from our proxy services and timing differences between our performance and counterparties’ payments. We recognized all revenue from amounts included in the opening contract liability balances in the six months ended June 30, 2023.

NOTE 5: RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES

April 2022 Restructuring

On April 26, 2022, we announced a reduction in force (the “April 2022 Restructuring”) as part of our efforts to improve efficiency and operating costs, increase our velocity, and ensure that we are responsive to the changing needs of our customers. The April 2022 Restructuring involved approximately 330 employees, representing approximately 9% of our full-time employees at that time.

We allowed affected employees’ share-based awards to continue vesting over a transitional period (generally two months during which they remained employed but were not expected to provide active service), which were generally accounted for as a modification allowing a portion of the awards to vest that otherwise would have been forfeited. However, as a result of the reversal of share-based compensation expense that had been previously recognized (under the accelerated attribution method, generally), the April 2022 Restructuring resulted in a net reduction to share-based compensation of $24 million, which was recognized in the second quarter of 2022 (refer to Note 12 for more information).

In addition, we recognized $17 million of cash restructuring and related charges in the second quarter of 2022, which primarily consisted of employee-related wages, benefits, and severance expense.

NOTE 6: ALLOWANCE FOR CREDIT LOSSES

Our allowance for credit losses relates to unsecured balances of receivables from users due to Fraudulent Deposit Transactions, losses on margin lending, and reserves on proxy revenue receivables. Fraudulent Deposit Transactions occur when users initiate deposits into their accounts, make trades on our platform using a short-term extension of credit from us, and then repatriate or reverse the deposits, resulting in a loss to us of the credited amount. The following table summarizes the allowance for credit losses:

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	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Beginning balance	$	20	$	20	$	40	$	18
Provision for credit losses	11		6		19		15
Write-offs	(13)		(6)		(41)		(13)
Ending balance	$	18	$	20	$	18	$	20

NOTE 7: INVESTMENTS AND FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENT

Investments

Available-for-sale

At December 31, 2022, our available-for-sale investments, which are included in other current assets on the audited consolidated balance sheets, was $10 million with no significant unrealized gains or losses. These investments had a stated contractual maturity or redemption date within one year. As of June 30, 2023, we had no available-for-sale investments. Refer to Fair Value of Financial Instruments below for further details.

Held-to-maturity

We had no held-to-maturity investments as of December 31, 2022. The following table summarizes our held-to-maturity investments as of June 30, 2023:


	June 30, 2023
(in millions)	Amortized Cost		Allowance for Credit Losses		Unrealized Gains		Unrealized Losses		Fair Value
Debt securities:
Corporate debt securities	$	243	$	—	$	—	$	(2)	$	241
U.S. Treasury securities	103		—		—		—		103
Certificates of deposit	54		—		—		—		54
U.S. government agency securities	43		—		—		—		43
Commercial paper	43		—		—		—		43
Total held-to-maturity investments	$	486	$	—	$	—	$	(2)	$	484

There were no sales of held-to-maturity investments during the six months ended June 30, 2023.

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The table below presents the amortized cost and fair value of held-to-maturity investments by contractual maturity and the maximum maturity per security is two years:


	June 30, 2023
(in millions)	Within 1 Year		1 to 2 Years		Total
Amortized cost
Debt securities:
Corporate debt securities	$	108	$	135	$	243
U.S. Treasury securities	75		28		103
Certificates of deposit	54		—		54
U.S. government agency securities	41		2		43
Commercial paper	43		—		43
Total held-to-maturity investments	$	321	$	165	$	486
Fair value
Debt securities:
Corporate debt securities	$	107	$	134	$	241
U.S. Treasury securities	75		28		103
Certificates of deposit	54		—		54
U.S. government agency securities	41		2		43
Commercial paper	43		—		43
Total held-to-maturity investments	$	320	$	164	$	484

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Fair Value of Financial Instruments

Financial assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis were presented on our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets as follows:


	December 31, 2022
(in millions)	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Assets
Cash equivalents:
Money market funds	$	735	$	—	$	—	$	735


Other current assets:
Available-for-sale investments:

Commercial paper	—		5		—		5
Government bonds	3		—		—		3
Corporate bonds	—		2		—		2
Equity securities - securities owned	8		—		—		8
Asset related to user cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation	—		8,431		—		8,431
User-held fractional shares	997		—		—		997
Total financial assets	$	1,743	$	8,438	$	—	$	10,181

Liabilities


User cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation	$	—	$	8,431	$	—	$	8,431
Fractional share repurchase obligations	997		—		—		997
Total financial liabilities	$	997	$	8,431	$	—	$	9,428


	June 30, 2023
(in millions)	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Assets
Cash equivalents:
Money market funds	$	251	$	—	$	—	$	251




Other current assets:
Stablecoin	10		—		—		10
Equity securities - securities owned	9		—		—		9






Asset related to user cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation	—		11,503		—		11,503
User-held fractional shares	1,409		—		—		1,409
Total financial assets	$	1,679	$	11,503	$	—	$	13,182

Liabilities


User cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation	$	—	$	11,503	$	—	$	11,503
Fractional share repurchase obligations	1,409		—		—		1,409
Total financial liabilities	$	1,409	$	11,503	$	—	$	12,912

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The fair value for certain financial instruments that are not required to be measured or reported at fair value was presented on our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets as follows:


	June 30, 2023
(in millions)	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Assets
Held-to-maturity investments:
Corporate debt securities	$	—	$	241	$	—	$	241
U.S. Treasury securities	103		—		—		103
Certificates of deposit	—		54		—		54
U.S. government agency securities	—		43		—		43
Commercial Paper	—		43		—		43
Total financial assets	$	103	$	381	$	—	$	484

The fair values used for held-to-maturity investments are obtained from an independent pricing service and represent fair values determined by pricing models using a market approach that considers observable market data, such as interest rate volatility, relevant yield curves, credit spreads and prices from market makers and live trading systems. Management reviews the valuation methodology and quality controls utilized by the pricing services in management's overall assessment of the reasonableness of the fair values provided.

During the six months ended June 30, 2023, we did not have any transfers in or out of Level 3 assets or liabilities.

Safeguarded user cryptocurrencies

Safeguarded user cryptocurrencies were as follows:


	December 31,		June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023
Bitcoin (BTC)	$	2,327	$	4,241
Ethereum (ETH)	2,341		3,398
Dogecoin (DOGE)	2,802		2,626
Other	961		1,238
Total user cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation and corresponding asset	$	8,431	$	11,503

The fair value of the user cryptocurrencies safeguarding obligation and the corresponding asset were determined based on observed market pricing representing the last price executed for trades of each cryptocurrency as of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023.

NOTE 8: DERIVATIVES AND HEDGING ACTIVITIES

As of June 30, 2023, we had two interest rate floors that were designated as cash flow hedges of interest rate risk associated with our margin receivables. One interest rate floor with a notional amount of $2 billion was effective as of June 30, 2023 and another with a notional amount of $1 billion will be effective in the first quarter of 2024. Both interest rate floors have a maturity of six months.

As of June 30, 2023, the fair value of hedging instruments was immaterial and included in other current assets in our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets. We had no derivatives and hedging activities during the year ended December 31, 2022.

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Amounts reported in AOCI related to interest rate floors will be reclassified to net interest revenues as interest payments are received or paid on the hedged items. During the next 12 months, we expect to reclassify $4 million of losses from AOCI as a reduction to net interest revenues. As of June 30, 2023, we hedged our exposure to the variability in future cash flows for forecasted transactions over a maximum period of one year.

The following table summarizes the amount of gain or loss recognized in AOCI on our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Derivatives designated as hedging instruments:
Loss on derivatives included in effectiveness assessment	$	—	$	(3)	$	—	$	(3)

The following table summarizes the components of AOCI related to hedging activities on our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Beginning balance	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	—
Other comprehensive loss before reclassifications, net of tax	—		(3)		—		(3)
Reclassification adjustment for net losses included in net interest revenues, net of tax	—		—		—		—
Other comprehensive loss after reclassifications, net of tax	$	—	$	(3)	$	—	$	(3)
Ending balance	$	—	$	(3)	$	—	$	(3)

NOTE 9: INCOME TAXES


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions, except percentages)	2022			2023			2022			2023
Income (loss) before income taxes	$	(294)		$	22		$	(685)		$	(487)
Provision for (benefit from) income taxes	1			(3)			2			(1)
Effective tax rate	(0.3)		%	(15.7)		%	(0.3)		%	0.2		%

Our tax provision for interim periods is determined using an estimated annual effective tax rate (“ETR”), adjusted for discrete items arising in the period. In each quarter, we update our estimated annual ETR and make a year-to-date calculation of the provision.

For the three and six months ended June 30, 2022, the ETR was lower than the U.S. federal statutory rate primarily due to the full valuation allowance on our U.S. federal and state deferred tax assets offset by current state taxes payable.

For the three months ended June 30, 2023, the ETR was lower than the U.S. federal statutory rate primarily due to the change in business operations related to our ongoing efficiency efforts. For the six months ended June 30, 2023, the ETR was lower than the U.S. federal statutory rate primarily due to the

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non-deductible cancellation of the 2021 Founders Award Cancellation, and the change in valuation allowance on our U.S. federal and state deferred tax assets offset by our current taxes payable.

The realization of tax benefits of net deferred tax assets is dependent upon future levels of taxable income, of an appropriate character, in the periods the items are expected to be deductible or taxable. Based on the available objective evidence during the six months ended June 30, 2023, we believe it is more likely than not that the tax benefits of the remaining U.S. net deferred tax assets may not be realized.

Utilization of the net operating loss and credit carryforwards may be subject to a substantial annual limitation due to the ownership change limitations provided by the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, and similar state provisions. The annual limitation may result in the expiration of net operating losses and tax credits before utilization.

NOTE 10: SECURITIES BORROWING AND LENDING

When we lend securities to third parties we receive cash as collateral for the securities loaned. In the table below, the cash collateral we hold related to loaned securities is presented in “securities loaned” and the fair value of securities lent is presented in “security collateral pledged.” Similarly, when we borrow securities from third parties or fully-paid securities from users, we provide cash collateral. In the table below, the amount of that cash collateral is presented in “securities borrowed” and the fair value of the securities received is presented in “security collateral received.”

Our securities lending transactions are subject to enforceable master netting arrangements with other broker-dealers; however, we do not net securities borrowing and lending transactions. Therefore, activity related to securities borrowing and lending activities are presented gross in our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets.

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The following tables set forth certain balances related to our securities borrowing and lending activities as of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023:


	December 31,		June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023
Assets	Securities borrowed
Gross amount of securities borrowed	$	517	$	960
Gross amount offset on the consolidated balance sheets	—		—
Amounts of assets presented on the consolidated balance sheets	517		960
Gross amount of securities borrowed not offset on the consolidated balance sheets:
Securities borrowed	517		960
Security collateral received	(509)		(951)
Net amount	$	8	$	9

Liabilities	Securities loaned
Gross amount of securities loaned	$	1,834	$	2,982
Gross amount of securities loaned offset on the consolidated balance sheets	—		—
Amounts of liabilities presented on the consolidated balance sheets	1,834		2,982
Gross amount of securities loaned not offset on the consolidated balance sheets:
Securities loaned	1,834		2,982
Security collateral pledged	(1,629)		(2,710)
Net amount	$	205	$	272

We obtain securities on terms that permit us to pledge and/or transfer securities to others. As of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023, we were permitted to re-pledge securities with a fair value of $4.36 billion and $4.57 billion under margin account agreements with users, and securities with a fair value of $18 million and an immaterial balance that we had borrowed under master securities loan agreements (“MSLAs”) with third parties. Under the Fully-Paid Securities Lending program, as of June 30, 2023, we were permitted to re-pledge securities with a fair value of $8.40 billion including securities with a fair value of $951 million that we had borrowed from users.

As of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023, we had re-pledged securities with a fair value of $1.63 billion and $2.71 billion, in each case under MSLAs and fixed-term securities lending agreements with third parties. In addition, as of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023, we had re-pledged $231 million and $669 million of the permitted amounts under the margin account agreements with clearing organizations to meet deposit requirements.

NOTE 11: FINANCING ACTIVITIES AND OFF-BALANCE SHEET RISK

Revolving Credit Facilities

October 2019 Credit Facility

In October 2019, we entered into a $200 million committed and unsecured revolving line of credit with a syndicate of banks maturing in October 2023 (the “October 2019 Credit Facility”). The October 2019 Credit Facility was subsequently amended to, among other things, increase the aggregate committed and unsecured revolving line of credit amount to $625 million with a maturity date of October 29, 2024 and

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change the applicable interest rates. Refer to Note 12 - Financing Activities and Off-Balance Sheet Risk, of the 2022 Form 10-K for more information.

April 2023 Credit Agreement

On March 24, 2023, RHS, our wholly-owned subsidiary, entered into the Second Amended and Restated Credit Agreement (the “April 2023 Credit Agreement”) among RHS, as borrower, the lenders party thereto, and JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as administrative agent, amending and restating the $2.275 billion 364-day senior secured revolving credit facility entered into in April 2022 (Refer to Note 12 - Financing Activities and Off-Balance Sheet Risk, of the 2022 Form 10-K for more information).

The April 2023 Credit Agreement provides for a 364-day senior secured revolving credit facility with a total commitment of $2.175 billion. Under circumstances described in the April 2023 Credit Agreement, the aggregate commitments may be increased by up to $1.0875 billion, for a total commitment under the April 2023 Credit Agreement of $3.2625 billion. Borrowings under the credit facility must be specified to be Tranche A, Tranche B, Tranche C or a combination thereof. Tranche A loans are secured by users’ securities purchased on margin and are used primarily to finance margin loans. Tranche B loans are secured by the right to the return from National Securities Clearing Corporation (“NSCC”) of NSCC margin deposits and cash and property in a designated collateral account and used for the purpose of satisfying NSCC deposit requirements. Tranche C loans are secured by the right to the return of eligible funds from any reserve account of the borrower and cash and property in a designated collateral account and used for the purpose of satisfying reserve requirements under Rule 15c3-3 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the "Exchange Act").

Borrowings under the April 2023 Credit Agreement will bear interest at a rate per annum equal to the greatest of (i) Daily Simple Secured Overnight Financing Rate ("SOFR") plus 0.10%, (ii) the Federal Funds Effective Rate (as defined in the April 2023 Credit Agreement) and (iii) the Overnight Bank Funding Rate (as defined in the April 2023 Credit Agreement), in each case, as of the day the loan is initiated, plus an applicable margin rate. The applicable margin rate is 1.25% for Tranche A loans and 2.50% for Tranche B and Tranche C loans. Undrawn commitments will accrue commitment fees at a rate per annum equal to 0.50%.

The April 2023 Credit Agreement requires RHS to maintain a minimum consolidated tangible net worth and a minimum excess net capital, and subjects RHS to a specified limit on minimum net capital to aggregate debit items. In addition, the April 2023 Credit Agreement contains certain customary affirmative and negative covenants, including limitations with respect to debt, liens, fundamental changes, asset sales, restricted payments, investments and transactions with affiliates, subject to certain exceptions. Amounts due under the April 2023 Credit Agreement may be accelerated upon an “event of default,” as defined in the April 2023 Credit Agreement, such as failure to pay amounts owed thereunder when due, breach of a covenant, material inaccuracy of a representation, or occurrence of bankruptcy or insolvency, subject in some cases to cure periods.

As of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023, there were no borrowings outstanding and we were in compliance with all covenants, as applicable, under our revolving credit facilities.

Off-Balance Sheet Risk

In the normal course of business, we engage in activities involving settlement and financing of securities transactions. User securities transactions are recorded on a settlement date basis, which is generally two business days after the trade date for equities and one business day after the trade date for options. These activities may expose us to off-balance sheet risk in the event that the other party to the transaction is unable to fulfill its contractual obligations. In such events, we may be required to purchase financial instruments at prevailing market prices in order to fulfill our obligations.

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NOTE 12: COMMON STOCK AND STOCKHOLDERS' (DEFICIT) EQUITY

Preferred Stock

As of June 30, 2023, no terms of the preferred stock were designated and no shares of preferred stock were outstanding.

Common Stock

We have three authorized classes of common stock: Class A, Class B, and Class C. Holders of our Class A common stock are entitled to one vote per share on all matters to be voted upon by our stockholders, holders of our Class B common stock are entitled to 10 votes per share on all matters to be voted upon by our stockholders and, except as otherwise required by applicable law, holders of our Class C common stock are not entitled to vote on any matter to be voted upon by our stockholders. The holders of our Class A common stock and Class B common stock vote together as a single class, unless otherwise required by our Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation (our "Charter") or applicable law.

Warrants

As of June 30, 2023, warrants outstanding consisted of warrants to purchase 14.3 million shares of Class A common stock with a strike price of $26.60 per share. The warrants expire on February 12, 2031 and can be exercised with cash or net shares at the holder’s option. In aggregate, the maximum purchase amount of all warrants is $380 million. As of June 30, 2023, the warrants have not been exercised and are included as a component of additional paid in capital on the unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets.

Equity Incentive Plans

Amended and Restated 2013 Stock Plan and 2020 Equity Incentive Plan

Our Amended and Restated 2013 Stock Plan, as amended (the “2013 Plan”), and our 2020 Equity Incentive Plan, as amended (the “2020 Plan”), provided for share-based awards to eligible participants, granted as incentive stock options (“ISOs”), non-statutory stock options (“NSOs”), restricted stock units ("RSUs"), stock appreciation rights (“SARs”) or restricted stock awards (“RSAs”). Our 2013 Plan was terminated in connection with adoption of our 2020 Plan, and our 2020 Plan was terminated in connection with the adoption of our 2021 Omnibus Incentive Plan (the "2021 Plan") but any awards outstanding under our 2013 Plan and 2020 Plan remain in effect in accordance with their terms. Any shares that were or otherwise would become available for grant under the 2013 Plan or 2020 Plan will be available for grant under the 2021 Plan. No new awards may be granted under our 2013 Plan or 2020 Plan.

2021 Omnibus Incentive Plan

Our 2021 Plan became effective on July 27, 2021, and provides for the grant of share-based awards (such as options, including ISOs and NSOs, SARs, RSAs, RSUs, performance units, and other equity-based awards) and cash-based awards.

As of June 30, 2023, an aggregate of 405 million shares had been authorized for issuance under the 2013 Plan, 2020 Plan, and 2021 Plan, of which 114 million shares had been issued under the plans, 92 million shares were reserved for issuance upon the exercise or settlement of outstanding equity awards under the plans, and 199 million shares remained available for new grants under the 2021 Plan.

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Time-Based RSUs

We grant RSUs that vest upon the satisfaction of a time-based service condition (“Time-Based RSUs”). The following table summarizes the activity related to our Time-Based RSUs for the six months ended June 30, 2023, which is the period we grant our company-wide annual refresh grants:


	Number of RSUs	Weighted- average grant date fair value
Unvested at December 31, 2022	56,116,782	$	18.55
Granted	20,853,680	9.70
Vested	(15,261,931)	16.35
Forfeited	(6,966,467)	17.19
Unvested at June 30, 2023	54,742,064	$	15.31

Market-Based RSUs

In 2019 and 2021, we granted to our founders RSUs under which vesting is conditioned upon both the achievement of share price targets and the continued employment by each recipient over defined service periods (“Market-Based RSUs”).

In February 2023, we cancelled the 2021 Market-Based RSUs of 35.5 million unvested shares (the “2021 Founders Award Cancellation”). We recognized $485 million share-based compensation (“SBC”) expense related to the cancellation during the six months ended June 30, 2023, which was included in the general and administrative expense in our unaudited condensed statement of operations. No further expense associated with these awards was recognized after the cancellation. No other payments, replacement equity awards or benefits were granted in connection with the cancellation.

The following table summarizes the activity related to our Market-Based RSUs for the six months ended June 30, 2023:


	Eligible to Vest(1)	Not Eligible to Vest(2)	Total Number of RSUs	Weighted- average grant date fair value
Unvested at December 31, 2022	806,858	57,650,926	58,457,784	$	23.67
Granted	—	—	—
Vested	(230,530)	—	(230,530)	2.34
Cancelled	—	(35,520,000)	(35,520,000)	22.68
Unvested at June 30, 2023	576,328	22,130,926	22,707,254	$	25.43

________________

(1)Represents RSUs that became eligible to vest upon achievement of share price targets and vest upon satisfaction of time-based service requirements.

(2)Represents RSUs that have not yet become eligible to vest because share price targets have not yet been achieved.

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Share-Based Compensation

The following table presents SBC on our unaudited condensed consolidated statements of operations for the periods indicated:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Brokerage and transaction	$	1	$	2	$	2	$	4
Technology and development	59		56		141		110
Operations	1		1		5		3
Marketing	(2)		1		3		2
General and administrative	105		49		233		588
Total(1)(2)	$	164	$	109	$	384	$	707

________________

(1) For the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, SBC expense primarily consisted of $25 million and $553 million related to Market-Based RSUs and $81 million and $148 million related to Time-Based RSUs, compared to $82 million and $166 million and $78 million and $208 million for the same periods in the prior year.

(2) The April 2022 Restructuring resulted in a net reduction of $24 million in share-based compensation expense, which was recognized in the three and six months ended June 30, 2022 and is reflected in the tables above. The $24 million was substantially all related to Time-Based RSUs, and primarily included $16 million in technology and development expense and $6 million in general and administrative expense.

We capitalized SBC expense related to internally developed software of $3 million and $7 million during the three and six months ended June 30, 2023 and $7 million and $17 million during the three and six months ended June 30, 2022.

As of June 30, 2023, there was $0.6 billion of unrecognized SBC expense that is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of 1.2 years.

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NOTE 13: NET INCOME (LOSS) PER SHARE

We present net income (loss) per share using the two-class method required for multiple classes of common stock. The rights, including the liquidation and dividend rights, of the holders of Class A common stock and Class B common stock are identical, except with respect to voting. As the liquidation and dividend rights are identical for Class A common stock and Class B common stock, the undistributed earnings are allocated on a proportionate basis and the resulting income or loss per share will, therefore, be the same for both Class A common stock and Class B common stock on an individual or combined basis. The computation of the diluted earnings per share (“EPS”) of Class A common stock assumes the conversion of our Class B common stock to Class A common stock, while the diluted EPS of Class B common stock does not assume the conversion of those shares to Class A common stock.

The following table presents the calculation of basic and diluted income (loss) per share:


(in millions, except share and per share data)	Three Months Ended June 30,								Six Months Ended June 30,
	2022				2023				2022				2023
	Class A		Class B		Class A		Class B		Class A		Class B		Class A		Class B
Basic EPS:
Numerator
Net income (loss)	$	(252)	$	(43)	$	21	$	4	$	(586)	$	(101)	$	(417)	$	(69)

Denominator
Weighted-average common shares outstanding - basic	746,918,055		127,955,246		777,563,804		127,421,059		743,388,049		127,955,246		773,416,723		127,560,322
Basic EPS	$	(0.34)	$	(0.34)	$	0.03	$	0.03	$	(0.79)	$	(0.79)	$	(0.54)	$	(0.54)

Diluted EPS:
Numerator
Net income (loss)	$	(252)	$	(43)	$	21	$	4	$	(586)	$	(101)	$	(417)	$	(69)
Reallocation of net income as a result of conversion of Class B to Class A common stock	—		—		4		—		—		—		—		—
Net income (loss) for diluted EPS	$	(252)	$	(43)	$	25	$	4	$	(586)	$	(101)	$	(417)	$	(69)
Denominator
Weighted-average common shares outstanding - basic	746,918,055		127,955,246		777,563,804		127,421,059		743,388,049		127,955,246		773,416,723		127,560,322
Dilutive effect of stock options and unvested shares	—		—		16,284,886		—		—		—		—		—
Conversion of Class B to Class A common stock	—		—		127,421,059		—		—		—		—		—
Weighted-average common shares outstanding - diluted	746,918,055		127,955,246		921,269,749		127,421,059		743,388,049		127,955,246		773,416,723		127,560,322


Diluted EPS	$	(0.34)	$	(0.34)	$	0.03	$	0.03	$	(0.79)	$	(0.79)	$	(0.54)	$	(0.54)

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The following potential common shares were excluded from the calculation of diluted net income (loss) per share because their effect would have been anti-dilutive or issuance of such shares is contingent upon the satisfaction of certain conditions which were not satisfied by the end of the period:


	Three Months Ended June 30,		Six Months Ended June 30,
	2022	2023	2022	2023

Time-Based RSUs	72,475,092	21,854,966	72,475,092	54,800,356
Market-Based RSUs	58,688,314	10,328,697	58,688,314	22,707,254
Stock options	16,614,350	3,259,284	16,614,350	14,131,580
Early-exercised stock options	378	—	378	—
Warrants	14,278,034	14,278,034	14,278,034	14,278,034
ESPP shares	304,900	—	304,900	365,406
Total anti-dilutive securities	162,361,068	49,720,981	162,361,068	106,282,630

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NOTE 14: RELATED PARTY TRANSACTIONS

Related party transactions may include any transaction between entities under common control or with a related party. We have defined related parties as members of the board of directors, executive officers, principal owners of our outstanding stock and any immediate family members of each such related party, as well as any other person or entity with significant influence over our management or operations and any other affiliates.

For the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, we did not have any material related party transactions.

NOTE 15: LEASES

Our operating leases are comprised of office facilities, with the most significant leases relating to our corporate headquarters in Menlo Park, CA and our office in New York City, NY. We do not have any finance leases.

Lease assets and liabilities recognized on our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets were as follows:


		December 31,		June 30,
(in millions)	Classification	2022		2023
Lease right-of-use assets:
Operating lease assets	Other non-current assets	$	92	$	84

Lease liabilities:
Current operating lease liabilities	Other current liabilities	21		22
Non-current operating lease liabilities	Other non-current liabilities	127		116
Total lease liabilities		$	148	$	138

Cash flows related to leases were as follows:


	Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023
Operating cash flows:
Payments for operating lease liabilities	$	11	$	14
Supplemental cash flow data:
Lease liabilities arising from obtaining right-of-use assets	$	32	$	—

NOTE 16: COMMITMENTS & CONTINGENCIES

We are subject to contingencies arising in the ordinary course of our business, including contingencies related to legal, regulatory, non-income tax and other matters. We record an accrual for loss contingencies at management’s best estimate when we determine that it is probable that a loss has been incurred and the amount of the loss can be reasonably estimated. If the reasonable estimate is a range and no amount within that range is considered a better estimate than any other amount, an accrual is recorded based on the bottom amount of the range. If a loss is not probable, or a probable loss cannot be reasonably estimated, no accrual is recorded. Amounts accrued for contingencies in the aggregate were $85 million as of December 31, 2022 and $86 million as of June 30, 2023. In our opinion, an

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adequate accrual had been made as of each such date to provide for the probable losses of which we are aware and for which we can reasonably estimate an amount.

Legal and Regulatory Matters

The securities industry is highly regulated and many aspects of our business involve substantial risk of liability. In past years, there has been an increase in litigation and regulatory investigations involving the brokerage and cryptocurrency industries. Litigation has included and may in the future include class action suits that generally seek substantial and, in some cases, punitive damages. Federal and state regulators, exchanges, or other SROs investigate issues related to regulatory compliance that may result in enforcement action. We are also subject to periodic regulatory audits and inspections that have in the past and could in the future lead to enforcement investigations or actions.

We have been named as a defendant in lawsuits and from time to time we have been threatened with, or named as a defendant in arbitrations and administrative proceedings. The outcomes of these matters are inherently uncertain and some may result in adverse judgments or awards, including penalties, injunctions, or other relief, and we may also determine to settle a matter because of the uncertainty and risks of litigation.

With respect to matters discussed below, we believe, based on current knowledge, that any losses (in excess of amounts accrued, if applicable) as of June 30, 2023 that are reasonably possible and can be reasonably estimated will not, in the aggregate, have a material adverse effect on our business, financial position, operating results, or cash flows. However, for many of the matters disclosed below, particularly those in early stages, we cannot reasonably estimate the reasonably possible loss (or range of loss), if any. In addition, the ultimate outcome of legal proceedings involves judgments and inherent uncertainties and cannot be predicted with certainty. Any judgment entered against us, or any adverse settlement, could materially and adversely impact our business, financial condition, operating results, and cash flows. We might also incur substantial legal fees, which are expensed as incurred, in defending against legal and regulatory claims.

Described below are certain pending matters in which there is at least a reasonable possibility that a material loss could be incurred. We intend to continue to defend these matters vigorously.

Best Execution, Payment for Order Flow, and Sources of Revenue Civil Litigation

Beginning in December 2020, multiple putative securities fraud class action lawsuits were filed against RHM, RHF, and RHS. Five cases were consolidated in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. An amended consolidated complaint was filed in May 2021, alleging violations of Section 10(b) of the Exchange Act and various state law causes of action based on claims that we violated the duty of best execution and misled putative class members by publishing misleading statements and omissions in customer communications relating to the execution of trades and revenue sources (including PFOF). Plaintiffs seek damages, restitution, disgorgement, and other relief. In February 2022, the court granted Robinhood’s motion to dismiss the amended consolidated complaint without prejudice. In March 2022, plaintiffs filed a second consolidated amended complaint, alleging only violations of Section 10(b) of the Exchange Act, which Robinhood moved to dismiss. In October 2022, the court granted Robinhood’s motion in part and denied it in part. In November 2022, Robinhood filed a motion for judgment on the pleadings, which the court denied in January 2023.

March 2020 Outages

A consolidated putative class action lawsuit relating to the service outages on our stock trading platform on March 2-3, 2020 and March 9, 2020 (“March 2020 Outages”) is pending in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. The lawsuit generally alleges that putative class members were unable to execute trades during the March 2020 Outages because our platform was inadequately designed to handle customer demand and we failed to implement appropriate backup

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systems. The lawsuit includes, among other things, claims for breach of contract, negligence, gross negligence, breach of fiduciary duty, unjust enrichment and violations of certain California consumer protection statutes. The lawsuit generally seeks damages, restitution, and/or disgorgement, as well as declaratory and injunctive relief. In May 2022, the parties notified the court that they had reached an agreement in principle resolving this action. The settlement agreement has been approved by the court.

In addition, in September 2021, approximately 400 jointly-represented customers initiated an arbitration of individual claims against us arising out of the March 2020 Outages and other alleged system outages. The parties have settled this matter.

State Regulatory Matters

Certain state regulatory authorities have conducted investigations regarding RHF’s options trading and related customer communications and displays, options and margin trading approval process, the March 2020 Outages, and customer support prior to June 2020. RHF reached settlements with several state regulators including the Alabama Securities Commission, the California Department of Financial Protection and Innovation, the Colorado Division of Securities, the Delaware Department of Justice - Investor Protection Unit, the New Jersey Bureau of Securities, the South Dakota Division of Insurance, and the Texas State Securities Board, under which we have agreed to pay a monetary penalty of $200,000 per state. RHF has reached additional state settlements and anticipates reaching more as part of a multi-state settlement related to these issues totaling up to approximately $10 million. The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (“FINRA”) previously conducted an investigation and reached a settlement with RHF regarding many of these issues. The New York Attorney General is conducting an investigation into brokerage execution quality. We are cooperating with this investigation.

Brokerage Enforcement Matters

FINRA Enforcement staff are conducting investigations related to, among other things, RHS’s reporting of fractional share trades, as applicable, to a Trade Reporting Facility, the Over-the-Counter Reporting Facility, the Order Audit Trail System, and the Consolidated Audit Trail; RHS’s reporting of accounts holding significant options positions to the Large Option Position Report system; processing of certain requests for transfers of assets from Robinhood through the Automated Customer Account Transfer System; responses to Electronic Blue Sheets requests from FINRA; the delays in notification from third parties and process failures within our brokerage systems and operations in connection with the handling of a 1-for-25 reverse stock split transaction of Cosmo Health, Inc, in December 2022 (the “Q4 2022 Processing Error”); RHF’s compliance with FINRA registration requirements for member personnel; marketing involving social media influencers and affiliates; collaring the prices of certain trade orders; and RHS’ compliance with best execution obligations and FINRA Rule 6190. We are cooperating with these investigations.

RHS has received requests from the SEC Division of Enforcement regarding its compliance with Regulation SHO’s trade reporting and other requirements in connection with securities lending, fractional share trading, and the Q4 2022 Processing Error, and previously received similar requests from FINRA examinations staff. RHS and RHF have also received requests from the SEC Division of Enforcement and FINRA Enforcement staff related to the Firms’ compliance with recordkeeping requirements, including requests regarding off-channel communications. We are cooperating with these investigations.

Robinhood Crypto Matters

RHC has received subpoenas from the California Attorney General’s Office seeking information about, among other things, RHC’s trading platform, business and operations, custody of customer assets, customer disclosures, and coin listings. RHC also has received investigative subpoenas from the SEC regarding, among other topics, RHC’s cryptocurrency listings, custody of cryptocurrencies, and platform operations. RHC is cooperating with this investigation.

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Account Takeovers, Anti-Money Laundering, and Cybersecurity Matters

FINRA Enforcement and the SEC Division of Enforcement are investigating account takeovers (i.e., circumstances under which an unauthorized actor successfully logs into a customer account), as well as anti-money laundering compliance and cybersecurity issues, including the data security incident we experienced in November 2021 when an unauthorized third-party socially engineered a customer support employee by phone and obtained access to certain customer support systems (the “November 2021 Data Security Incident”). The SEC’s Division of Enforcement is also investigating issues related to compliance with the Electronic Funds Transfer Act. We are cooperating with these investigations.

In January 2021, Siddharth Mehta filed a putative class action in California state court against RHF and RHS, purportedly on behalf of approximately 2,000 Robinhood customers whose accounts were allegedly accessed by unauthorized users. RHF and RHS removed this action to the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Plaintiff generally alleges that RHF and RHS breached commitments made and duties owed to customers to safeguard customer data and assets and seeks monetary damages and injunctive relief. In April 2022, the parties reached a settlement in principle to resolve this matter. The settlement agreement has been approved by the court.

Massachusetts Securities Division Matter

In December 2020, the Enforcement Section of the Massachusetts Securities Division (“MSD”) filed an administrative complaint against RHF, which stems from an investigation initiated by the MSD in July 2020. The complaint alleged three counts of Massachusetts securities law violations regarding alleged unethical and dishonest conduct or practices, failure to supervise, and failure to act in accordance with the Massachusetts fiduciary duty standard, which became effective on March 6, 2020 and had an effective enforcement date beginning September 1, 2020. Among other things, the MSD alleged that our product features and marketing strategies, outages, and options trading approval process constitute violations of Massachusetts securities laws. MSD subsequently filed an amended complaint that seeks, among other things, injunctive relief (a permanent cease and desist order), censure, restitution, disgorgement, appointment of an independent consultant, an administrative fine, and revocation of RHF's license to operate in Massachusetts. If RHF were to lose its license to operate in Massachusetts, we would not be able to acquire any new customers in Massachusetts, and we expect that our current customers in Massachusetts would be unable to continue utilizing any of the services or products offered on our platform (other than closing their positions) and that we may be forced to transfer such customers’ accounts to other broker-dealers. Additionally, revocation of RHF’s Massachusetts license could trigger similar disqualification or proceedings to restrict or condition RHF’s registration by other state regulators. A revocation of RHF’s license to operate in Massachusetts would result in RHF and RHS being subject to statutory disqualification by FINRA and the SEC, which would then result in RHF needing to obtain relief from FINRA subject to SEC review in order to remain a FINRA member and RHS possibly needing relief from FINRA or other SROs.

In April 2021, RHF filed a complaint and motion for preliminary injunction and declaratory relief in Massachusetts state court seeking to enjoin the MSD administrative proceeding and challenging the legality of the Massachusetts fiduciary duty standard. In September 2021, the parties filed cross-motions for partial judgment on the pleadings. In March 2022, the court ruled in favor of RHF, declaring that the Massachusetts fiduciary duty regulation was unlawful. The MSD is appealing the ruling and it was heard by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in May 2023. A hearing on the two remaining counts alleged by the MSD in its amended administrative complaint has been continued pending resolution of the appeal.

Text Message Litigation

In August 2021, Cooper Moore filed a putative class action against RHF alleging that RHF initiated or assisted in the transmission of commercial electronic text messages to Washington State residents without their consent in violation of Washington state law. The complaint seeks statutory and treble

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damages, injunctive relief, and attorneys’ fees and costs. The case is currently pending in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington. RHF filed a motion to dismiss the complaint. In February 2022, Moore and Andrew Gillette filed an amended complaint, which RHF again moved to dismiss. In August 2022, the court denied RHF’s motion to dismiss.

Early 2021 Trading Restrictions Matters

Beginning on January 28, 2021, due to increased deposit requirements imposed on RHS by the NSCC in response to unprecedented market volatility, particularly in certain securities, RHS temporarily restricted or limited its customers’ purchase of certain securities, including GameStop Corp. and AMC Entertainment Holdings, Inc., on our platform (the “Early 2021 Trading Restrictions”).

A number of individual and putative class actions related to the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions were filed against RHM, RHF, and RHS, among others, in various federal and state courts. In April 2021, the Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation entered an order centralizing the federal cases identified in a motion to transfer and coordinate or consolidate the actions filed in connection with the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida. The court subsequently divided plaintiffs’ claims against Robinhood into three tranches: federal antitrust claims, federal securities law claims, and state law claims. In July 2021, plaintiffs filed consolidated complaints seeking monetary damages in connection with the federal antitrust and state law tranches. The federal antitrust complaint asserted one violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Act; the state law complaint asserted negligence and breach of fiduciary duty claims. In August 2021, we moved to dismiss both of these complaints.

In September 2021, plaintiffs filed an amended complaint asserting state law claims of negligence, breach of fiduciary duty, tortious interference with contract and business relationship, civil conspiracy, and breaches of the covenant of good faith and fair dealing and implied duty of care. In January 2022, the court dismissed the state law complaint with prejudice. Plaintiffs have appealed the court’s order to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit.

In November 2021, the court dismissed the federal antitrust complaint without prejudice. In January 2022, plaintiffs filed an amended complaint in connection with the federal antitrust tranche and Robinhood moved to dismiss the amended complaint. In May 2022, the court dismissed the federal antitrust complaint with prejudice. Plaintiffs have appealed the court’s order to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit.

In November 2021, plaintiffs for the federal securities tranche filed a complaint alleging violations of Sections 9(a) and 10(b) of the Exchange Act. In January 2022, we moved to dismiss the federal securities law complaint. In August 2022, the court granted in part and denied in part Robinhood’s motion to dismiss.

RHM, RHF, RHS, and our Co-Founder and CEO, Vladimir Tenev, among others, have received requests for information, and in some cases, subpoenas and requests for testimony, related to investigations and examinations of the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions from the United States Attorney’s Office for the Northern District of California (“USAO”), the U.S. Department of Justice ("DOJ”), Antitrust Division, the SEC’s Division of Enforcement, FINRA, the New York Attorney General’s Office, other state attorneys general offices, and a number of state securities regulators. Also, a related search warrant was executed by the USAO to obtain Mr. Tenev's cell phone. There have been several inquiries based on specific customer complaints. We have also received requests from the SEC Division of Enforcement and FINRA related to employee trading in certain securities that were subject to the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions, including GameStop Corp. and AMC Entertainment Holdings, Inc., during the week of January 25, 2021. These matters include requests related to whether any employee trading in these securities may have occurred after the decision to impose the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions and before the public announcement of the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions on January 28, 2021. We are

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cooperating with these investigations. FINRA Enforcement has also requested information about policies, procedures, and supervision related to employee trading generally.

In January 2023, approximately 4,700 jointly represented customers filed a statement of claim with FINRA to initiate arbitration of individual claims against RHF and RHS arising out of the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions. A motion to sever the arbitration was granted in July 2023 and any customer seeking to proceed with a claim is required to file a separate individual arbitration.

IPO Litigation

In December 2021, Philip Golubowski filed a putative class action in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California against RHM, the officers and directors who signed Robinhood’s initial public offering (“IPO”) offering documents, and Robinhood’s IPO underwriters. Plaintiff’s claims are based on alleged false or misleading statements in Robinhood’s IPO offering documents allegedly in violation of Sections 11 and 12(a) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the “Securities Act”). Plaintiff seeks compensatory damages, rescission of shareholders’ share purchases, and an award for attorneys’ fees and costs. In February 2022, certain alleged Robinhood stockholders submitted applications seeking appointment by the court to be the lead plaintiff to represent the putative class in this matter, and in March 2022, the court appointed lead plaintiffs. In June 2022, plaintiffs filed an amended complaint. In August 2022, Robinhood filed a motion to dismiss the complaint. In February 2023, the court granted Robinhood’s motion without prejudice. In March 2023, plaintiffs filed a second amended complaint. Robinhood has moved to dismiss the complaint.

In January 2022, Robert Zito filed a complaint derivatively on behalf of Robinhood against Robinhood’s directors at the time of its IPO in the U.S. District Court for the District of Delaware. Plaintiff alleges breach of fiduciary duties, waste of corporate assets, unjust enrichment, and violations of Section 10(b) of the Exchange Act. Plaintiff’s claims are based on allegations of false or misleading statements in Robinhood’s IPO offering documents, and plaintiff seeks an award of damages and restitution to the Company, injunctive relief, and an award for attorney’s fees and costs. In March 2022, the district court entered a stay of this litigation pending resolution of Robinhood’s motion to dismiss in the Golubowski securities action discussed above.

In August 2022, a shareholder sent a letter to the RHM board of directors demanding, among other things, that the board of directors pursue causes of action on behalf of the Company related to allegations of misconduct in connection with the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions, Robinhood’s IPO offering documents, and the November 2021 Data Security Incident. The board has formed a Demand Review Committee that is reviewing the demand.

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ITEM 2. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

This section presents management’s perspective on our financial condition and results of operations, including performance metrics that management uses to assess company performance. The following discussion and analysis is intended to highlight and supplement data and information presented elsewhere in this Quarterly Report, and should be read in conjunction with our interim unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements and notes elsewhere in this Quarterly Report and our audited consolidated financial statements and the related notes and the discussion under the heading "Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" included in our 2022 Form 10-K. It is also intended to provide you with information that will assist you in understanding our consolidated financial statements, the changes in key items in those consolidated financial statements from year to year, and the primary factors that accounted for those changes. To the extent that this discussion describes prior performance, the descriptions relate only to the periods listed, which might not be indicative of our future financial outcomes. In addition to historical information, this discussion contains forward-looking statements that involve risks, uncertainties and assumptions that could cause results to differ materially from management’s expectations. Factors that could cause such differences are discussed in the sections titled “Cautionary Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” and “Risk Factors.”

Data as of and for the three and six months ended June 30, 2022 and 2023 has been derived from our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements appearing at the beginning of this Quarterly Report. Results for any interim period should not be construed as an inference of what our results would be for any full fiscal year or future period.

We refer to our “users” and our “customers” interchangeably throughout this Quarterly Report to refer to individuals who hold accounts on our platform.

Glossary Terms

•Automated Customer Account Transfer Service (“ACATS”): A system that automates and standardizes procedures for the transfer of assets in a customer account from one brokerage firm and/or bank to another.

•Churned Account: An account is considered “Churned” if it was ever a New Funded Account whose account balance (measured as the fair value of assets in the account less any amount due from the user and excluding certain Company-initiated Credits) drops to or below zero for at least 45 consecutive calendar days. Negative balances typically result from Fraudulent Deposit Transactions (as defined below) and unauthorized debit card use, and less often, from margin loans.

•Company-initiated Credits: Company-initiated Credits are amounts that are deposited into a Robinhood Account by the Company with no action taken by the user. Examples of Company-initiated Credits excluded for purposes of identifying Churned Accounts and Resurrected Accounts are price correction credits, related interest adjustments, and fee adjustments.

•Daily Average Revenue Trades (“DARTs”): We define DARTs for any asset class as the total number of revenue generating trades for such asset class executed during a given period divided by the number of trading days for such asset class in that period.

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•Fraudulent Deposit Transactions: Occur when users initiate deposits into their accounts, make trades on our platform using a short-term extension of credit from us, and then repatriate or reverse the deposits, resulting in a loss to us of the credited amount.

•Margin Book: We define Margin Book as our period-end aggregate outstanding margin loan balances receivable (i.e., the period-end total amount we are owed by customers on loans made for the purchase of securities, supported by a pledge of assets in their margin-enabled brokerage accounts).

•New Funded Account: We define a New Funded Account as a Robinhood Account into which the user makes an initial deposit, money transfer or asset transfer, of any amount, during the relevant period.

•Notional Trading Volume: We define Notional Trading Volume for any specified asset class as the aggregate dollar value (purchase price or sale price as applicable) of trades executed in that asset class over a specified period of time.

•Options Contracts Traded: We define Options Contracts Traded as the total number of options contracts bought or sold over a specified period of time. Each contract generally entitles the holder to trade 100 shares of the underlying stock.

•Resurrected Account: An account is considered “Resurrected” in a stated period if it was a Churned Account as of the end of the immediately preceding period and its balance (excluding certain Company-initiated Credits) rises above zero.

•Robinhood Account: We define a Robinhood Account as a unique log-in that provides the account user access to any and all of the Robinhood products offered on our platform.

Key Performance Metrics

•Net Cumulative Funded Accounts (“NCFA”): We define Net Cumulative Funded Accounts as New Funded Accounts less Churned Accounts plus Resurrected Accounts.

•Monthly Active Users (“MAU”): We define MAUs as the number of unique Robinhood Accounts who meet one of the following criteria at any point during a specified calendar month: a) executes a debit card transaction, b) transitions between two different screens on a mobile device while logged into their Robinhood Account or c) loads a page in a web browser while logged into their Robinhood Account. A user need not satisfy these conditions on a recurring monthly basis or have a funded account to be included in MAU. MAU figures in this Quarterly Report reflect MAU for the last month of the relevant period presented. We utilize MAU to measure how many customers interact with our products and services during a given month. MAU does not measure the frequency or duration of the interaction, but we consider it a useful indicator for engagement. Additionally, MAUs are positively correlated with, but are not indicative of, the performance of revenue and other key performance indicators.

•Assets Under Custody (“AUC”): We define AUC as the sum of the fair value of all equities, options, cryptocurrency and cash held by users in their accounts, net of receivables from users, as of a stated date or period end on a trade date basis. Net Deposits and net market gains (losses) drive the change in AUC in any given period.

•Net Deposits: We define Net Deposits as all cash deposits and asset transfers received from customers, net of reversals, customer cash withdrawals, and other assets transferred out of our platform (assets transferred in or out include debit card transactions, ACATS transfers, and custodial crypto wallet transfers) for a stated period.

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•Growth Rate and Annualized Growth Rate with respect to Net Deposits: When used with respect to Net Deposits, "growth rate" and "annualized growth rate" provide information about Net Deposits relative to total AUC. "Growth rate" is calculated as aggregate Net Deposits over a specified 12 month period, divided by AUC for the fiscal quarter that immediately precedes such 12 month period. "Annualized growth rate" is calculated as Net Deposits for a specified quarter multiplied by 4 and divided by AUC for the immediately preceding quarter.

•Average Revenue Per User (“ARPU”): We define ARPU as total revenue for a given period divided by the average of Net Cumulative Funded Accounts on the last day of that period and the last day of the immediately preceding period.

Overview

Robinhood was founded on the belief that everyone should be welcome to participate in our financial system. We are creating a modern financial services platform for everyone, regardless of their wealth, income, or background.

Our mission is to democratize finance for all. We use technology to provide access to the financial system in a way that is simple and convenient for our customers. We believe investing should be familiar and welcoming, with a simple design and an intuitive interface, so that customers are empowered to achieve their goals. We started with a revolutionary, bold brand and design in the Robinhood app which makes investing approachable for millions. We pioneered commission-free stock trading with no account minimums, which the rest of the industry emulated, and we continue to build relationships with our customers by introducing new products that further expand access to the financial system. Through these efforts, we believe we have made investing culturally relevant and understandable, and that our platform is enabling our customers to become long-term investors and take greater control of their finances.

Financial Results and Performance

With respect to the three months ended June 30, 2023, as compared to the three months ended June 30, 2022:

•we generated total net revenues of $486 million compared to $318 million, for a year-over-year increase of 53%.

•we generated net income of $25 million, or $0.03 per share, compared to a net loss of $295 million, or -$0.34 per share;

•operating expenses were $466 million compared to $610 million, for a year-over-year decrease of 24%;

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◦SBC expense totaled $109 million compared to $164 million, for a year-over-year decrease of 34%. SBC expense for the three months ended June 30, 2022 included a $24 million net reversal related to the April 2022 Restructuring;

•our Adjusted EBITDA (non-GAAP) was positive $151 million compared to negative $80 million, for year-over-year increase of $231 million;

•we had NCFA of 23.2 million compared to 22.9 million, for year-over-year growth of 1%;

•we had MAU of 10.8 million compared to 14.0 million, for a year-over-year decrease of 23%;

•we had AUC of $88.8 billion compared to $64.2 billion, for a year-over-year increase of 38%, primarily due to increasing asset values between the periods;

•Net Deposits were $4.1 billion, which translates to an annualized growth rate of 21%, compared to $5.2 billion, which translates to an annualized growth rate of 22%. Over the past twelve months, Net Deposits were $16.1 billion, which translates to a growth rate of 25% relative to AUC at June 30, 2022;

•we had ARPU of $84 compared to $56, for a year-over-year increase of 50%.

Adjusted EBITDA is a non-GAAP financial measure. For more information about Adjusted EBITDA, including the definition and limitations of such measure, and a reconciliation of net income (loss) to Adjusted EBITDA, please see “—Non-GAAP Financial Measures” below.

Recent Developments

Acquisition of X1

On June 21, 2023, we entered into a definitive agreement to acquire all of the outstanding equity of X1 Inc., a U.S.-based company that offers a no-fee credit card with rewards on each purchase. The aggregate consideration to be paid in cash is approximately $104 million, subject to customary purchase price adjustments set forth in the definitive agreement and customary closing conditions. The transaction closed on July 3, 2023, refer to Note 3 - Business Combinations to our unaudited consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report.

Ongoing Efficiency Efforts

As part of our ongoing efforts to improve efficiency and operating costs, we continuously evaluate whether we are appropriately staffed in the normal course of business. During the three months ended June 30, 2023, we reduced our staff in certain departments as we saw increased productivity and opportunities for greater efficiency while continuing to deliver great service and innovation for our customers. As a result, we recognized nearly $10 million of employee-related wages, benefits, and severance expense.

2021 Founders Award Cancellation

In February 2023, we cancelled the 2021 Market-Based RSUs granted to our founders of 35.5 million unvested shares. We recognized $485 million SBC expense related to the cancellation during the six months ended June 30, 2023. No further expense associated with these awards will be recognized after the cancellation. No other payments, replacement equity awards or benefits were granted in connection with the cancellation.

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Key Performance Metrics

In addition to the measures presented in our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements, we use the following key performance metrics to help us evaluate our business, identify trends affecting our business, formulate business plans, and make strategic decisions:


	Three Months Ended June 30,
	2022		2023
NCFA(1) (in millions)	22.9		23.2
MAU (in millions)	14.0		10.8
AUC(2) (in billions)	$	64.2	$	88.8
Net Deposits (in billions)	$	5.2	$	4.1
ARPU (in dollars)	$	56	$	84

________________

(1)The following table describes the annual changes within NCFA:


	Three Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022	2023
Beginning NCFA	22.8	23.1
New funded accounts	0.4	0.2
Resurrected accounts	0.1	0.1
Churned accounts	(0.4)	(0.2)
Ending NCFA	22.9	23.2

(2)The following table sets out the components of AUC by type of asset:


	Three Months Ended June 30,
(in billions)	2022		2023
Equities	$	51.2	$	62.8
Cryptocurrencies	8.6		11.5
Options	0.5		0.5
Cash held by users	8.1		17.2
Receivables from users	(4.2)		(3.2)
AUC	$	64.2	$	88.8

The following table describes the changes within AUC:


	Three Months Ended June 30,
(in billions)	2022		2023
Beginning AUC	$	93.1	$	78.4
Net Deposits	5.2		4.1
Net market gains (losses)	(34.1)		6.3
Ending AUC	$	64.2	$	88.8

Non-GAAP Financial Measures

Adjusted EBITDA

We collect and analyze operating and financial data to evaluate the health of our business, allocate our resources and assess our performance. In addition to total net revenues, net income (loss), and other

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results under GAAP, we utilize non-GAAP calculations of adjusted earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (“Adjusted EBITDA”). Adjusted EBITDA is defined as net income (loss), excluding (i) interest expenses related to credit facilities, (ii) provision for (benefit from) income taxes, (iii) depreciation and amortization, (iv) SBC, (v) significant legal and tax settlements and reserves, and (vii) other significant gains, losses, and expenses (such as impairments, restructuring charges, and business acquisition- or disposition-related expenses) that we believe are not indicative of our ongoing results. This non-GAAP financial information is presented for supplemental informational purposes only, should not be considered a substitute for or superior to financial information presented in accordance with GAAP, and may be different from similarly titled non-GAAP measures used by other companies.

The above items are excluded from our Adjusted EBITDA measure because these items are non-cash in nature, or because the amount and timing of these items are unpredictable, are not driven by core results of operations, and render comparisons with prior periods and competitors less meaningful. We believe Adjusted EBITDA provides useful information to investors and others in understanding and evaluating our results of operations, as well as providing a useful measure for period-to-period comparisons of our business performance. Moreover, Adjusted EBITDA is a key measurement used by our management internally to make operating decisions, including those related to operating expenses, evaluate performance, and perform strategic planning and annual budgeting.

The following table presents a reconciliation of net loss, which is the most directly comparable GAAP measure, to Adjusted EBITDA:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Net income (loss)	$	(295)	$	25	$	(687)	$	(486)
Add:
Interest expenses related to credit facilities	6		5		12		11
Provision for (benefit from) income taxes	1		(3)		2		(1)
Depreciation and amortization	17		15		29		35
EBITDA (non-GAAP)	(271)		42		(644)		(441)
2021 Founders Award Cancellation	—		—		—		485
SBC excluding 2021 Founders Award Cancellation(1)	164		109		384		222
Restructuring charges(2)	17		—		17		—
Significant legal and tax settlements and reserves	10		—		20		—
Adjusted EBITDA (non-GAAP)	$	(80)	$	151	$	(223)	$	266

________________

(1)SBC excluding 2021 Founders Award Cancellation included a net reduction of $24 million as a result of the reversal of previously recognized expense for stock awards that were forfeited in connection with the April 2022 Restructuring.

(2)Restructuring charges related to the April 2022 Restructuring and primarily consisted of employee-related wages and benefits and severance expenses.

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Results of Operations

The following table summarizes our unaudited condensed consolidated statements of operations data:


(in millions)	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
	2022		2023		2022		2023

Revenues:
Transaction-based revenues	$	202	$	193	$	420	$	400
Net interest revenues	74		234		129		442
Other revenues	42		59		68		85
Total net revenues	318		486		617		927

Operating expenses:(1)
Brokerage and transaction	30		39		61		75
Technology and development	245		207		513		406
Operations	86		36		177		78
Marketing	23		25		55		51
General and administrative	226		159		494		806
Total operating expenses	610		466		1,300		1,416

Other (income) expense, net	2		(2)		2		(2)
Income (loss) before income taxes	(294)		22		(685)		(487)
Provision for (benefit from) income taxes	1		(3)		2		(1)
Net income (loss)	$	(295)	$	25	$	(687)	$	(486)

_______________

(1)Includes SBC expense as follows:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		2022		2023
Brokerage and transaction	$	1	$	2	$	2	$	4
Technology and development	59		56		141		110
Operations	1		1		5		3
Marketing	(2)		1		3		2
General and administrative	105		49		233		588
Total SBC expense	$	164	$	109	$	384	$	707

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Comparison of the Three and Six Months Ended June 30, 2022 and 2023

Revenues

Transaction-Based Revenues


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions, except for percentages)	2022		2023		% Change		2022		2023		% Change
Transaction-based revenues
Options	$	113	$	127	12	%	$	240	$	260	8	%
Cryptocurrencies	58		31		(47)	%	112		69		(38)	%
Equities	29		25		(14)	%	65		52		(20)	%
Other	2		10		400	%	3		19		533	%
Total transaction-based revenues	$	202	$	193	(4)	%	$	420	$	400	(5)	%
Transaction-based revenues as a % of total net revenues:
Options	36%		26%				39%		28%
Cryptocurrencies	18%		6%				18%		7%
Equities	9%		5%				11%		6%
Other	1%		3%				—%		2%
Total transaction-based revenues	64%		40%				68%		43%

Transaction-based revenues decreased by $9 million and $20 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year, primarily driven by the market environment, which had a negative impact on the number of traders across all asset classes, and a decrease in Notional Trading Volumes across cryptocurrencies and equities, partially offset by an increase in Options Contracts Traded.

Crypto DARTs decreased from 0.4 million to 0.2 million, for both the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year. Additionally, the number of users placing cryptocurrency trades decreased 39% and 38% and the average Notional Trading Volume traded per trader decreased 20% and 23%. The decrease was partially offset by a higher rebate rate from crypto market makers.

Equities DARTs decreased from 1.6 million to 1.5 million and 1.7 million to 1.5 million, for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year. The number of users placing equity trades decreased 16% and 7% while the average Notional Trading Volume per trader increased 9% and 6%. Additionally, we experienced lower equity rebate rates due to reduced spreads in securities pricing.

Options Contracts Traded were up 35% and 24% for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year. Options DARTs increased from 0.5 million to 0.6 million and remained flat at 0.6 million, compared to the same periods in the prior year. However, the number of users placing option trades decreased 18% and 23%. Further, we experienced lower option rebate rates due to reduced market volatility and the mix of ticker symbols traded as different ticker symbols pay different rebate rates.

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Net Interest Revenues


	Three Months Ended June 30,								Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions, except for percentages)	2022			2023			% Change		2022			2023			% Change
Net interest revenues:
Interest on corporate cash and investments	$	10		$	74		640	%	$	11		$	142		NM
Margin interest	39			57			46	%	74			110			49	%
Interest on segregated cash and cash equivalents and deposits	6			52			767	%	7			97			NM
Securities lending, net	23			27			17	%	47			53			13	%
Cash sweep	2			29			NM		2			51			NM
Interest expenses related to credit facilities	(6)			(5)			(17)	%	(12)			(11)			(8)	%
Total net interest revenues	$	74		$	234		216	%	$	129		$	442		243	%
Net interest revenues as a % of total net revenues:
Interest on corporate cash and investments	3		%	15		%			2		%	15		%
Margin interest	12		%	12		%			12		%	12		%
Interest on segregated cash and cash equivalents and deposits	2		%	10		%			1		%	10		%
Securities lending, net	7		%	6		%			8		%	6		%
Cash sweep	1		%	6		%			—		%	6		%
Interest expenses related to credit facilities	(2)		%	(1)		%			(2)		%	(1)		%
Total net interest revenues	23		%	48		%			21		%	48		%

Net interest revenues increased by $160 million and $313 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year. The increase was driven by the higher short term interest rate environment due to the rise in the federal funds rate, which is an input to our floating margin rate calculation and impacts the interest rate we receive on investable assets. Net interest revenues from margin interest also increased due to the higher interest rate while our Margin Book balance declined year-over-year. Segregated cash and cash equivalents and deposits as well as cash sweep balances increased year-over-year, which also contributed to the higher net interest revenues.

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The following table summarizes interest-earning assets, the revenue or expense generated by these assets, and their respective annualized yields (computed based on average balance over the quarter):


(in millions, except for annualized yield)	Margin Book(1)			Cash and deposits(2)			Cash sweep (off-balance sheet)(3)			Total interest-earning assets			Securities lending, net		Interest expenses related to credit facilities		Net interest revenue
Three Months Ended June 30, 2023
June 30, 2023	$	3,314		$	10,758		$	11,903		$	25,975
March 31, 2023	3,117			10,405			8,881			22,403
Average(4)	3,216			10,582			10,392			24,189
Revenue/(expense)	57			126			29			212			$	27	$	(5)	$	234
Annual yield(5)	7.09%			4.76%			1.12%			3.51%							3.87		%

Three Months Ended March 31, 2023
March 31, 2023	$	3,117		$	10,405		$	8,881		$	22,403
December 31, 2022	3,089			9,530			5,837			18,456
Average(4)	3,103			9,968			7,359			20,430
Revenue/(expense)	53			113			22			188			$	26	$	(6)	$	208
Annual yield(5)	6.83%			4.53%			1.20%			3.68%							4.07		%

Three Months Ended June 30, 2022
June 30, 2022	$	4,142		$	9,717		$	2,408		$	16,267
March 31, 2022	5,292			10,983			2,275			18,550
Average(4)	4,717			10,350			2,341			17,408
Revenue/(expense)	39			16			2			57			$	23	$	(6)	$	74
Annual yield(5)	3.31%			0.62%			0.34%			1.31%							1.70		%

Six Months Ended June 30, 2023
June 30, 2023	$	3,314		$	10,758		$	11,903		$	25,975
December 31, 2022	3,089			9,530			5,837			18,456
Average(4)	3,201			10,144			8,870			22,215
Revenue/(expense)	110			239			51			400			$	53	$	(11)	$	442
Annual yield(5)	6.87		%	4.71		%	1.15		%	3.60		%					1.99		%

Six Months Ended June 30, 2022
June 30, 2022	$	4,142		$	9,717		$	2,408		$	16,267
December 31, 2021	6,467			10,600			2,095			19,162
Average(4)	5,304			10,159			2,251			17,714
Revenue/(expense)	74			18			2			94			$	47	$	(12)	$	129
Annual yield(5)	2.79		%	0.35		%	0.18		%	1.06		%					0.73		%

__________

(1) Margin Book is the aggregate outstanding margin loan balances receivable.

(2) Includes cash and cash equivalents, cash segregated under federal and other regulations, deposits with clearing organizations and investments.

(3) Cash sweep is an off-balance-sheet amount. Robinhood earns a net interest spread on Cash Sweep balances based on the interest rate offered by the partner banks less the interest rate given to users as stated in our program terms.

(4) Average balance rows present a simple average of the ending balances as of each of the indicated dates for the relevant period.

(5) Annual yield is calculated by annualizing revenue/expense for the given period then dividing by the applicable average asset balance.

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Other Revenues


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions, except for percentages)	2022		2023		% Change		2022		2023		% Change
Other revenues	$	42	$	59	40	%	$	68	$	85	25	%
Other revenues as a % of total net revenues	13%		12%				11%		9%

Other revenues increased $17 million for both the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year, primarily due to increases in proxy revenues of $15 million and $16 million as a result of the growth in our proxy service.

Operating Expenses


	Three Months Ended June 30,								Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions, except for percentages)	2022			2023			% Change		2022			2023			% Change
Operating expenses:
Brokerage and transaction	$	30		$	39		30	%	$	61		$	75		23	%
Technology and development	245			207			(16)	%	513			406			(21)	%
Operations	86			36			(58)	%	177			78			(56)	%
Marketing	23			25			9	%	55			51			(7)	%
General and administrative	226			159			(30)	%	494			806			63	%
Total operating expenses	$	610		$	466		(24)	%	$	1,300		$	1,416		9	%
Percent of net revenues:
Brokerage and transaction	9		%	8		%			10		%	8		%
Technology and development	77		%	43		%			83		%	44		%
Operations	27		%	7		%			29		%	8		%
Marketing	8		%	5		%			9		%	6		%
General and administrative	71		%	33		%			80		%	87		%
Total operating expenses	192		%	96		%			211		%	153		%

Brokerage and Transaction


	Three Months Ended June 30,					Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		% Change	2022		2023		% Change
Broker-dealer transaction expenses	$	5	$	9	80%	$	14	$	18	29%
Employee compensation, benefits, and overhead, excluding SBC	5		9		80%	10		15		50%
Market data expenses	7		5		(29)%	14		11		(21)%

SBC	1		2		100%	2		4		100%
Other	12		14		17%	21		27		29%
Total	$	30	$	39	30%	$	61	$	75	23%

Brokerage and transaction costs increased by $9 million and $14 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year, primarily due to increases in broker-dealer transaction expenses of $4 million for both periods, mainly driven by increases in clearing

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fees due to higher option trading activities. In addition, for the six months ended June 30, 2023, other brokerage and transaction costs increased $6 million, mainly driven by expenses associated with certain new products and features launched during the second quarter of 2022.

Technology and Development


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		% Change		2022		2023		% Change
Employee compensation, benefits, and overhead, excluding SBC	$	106	$	84	(21)	%	$	210	$	163	(22)	%
SBC	59		56		(5)	%	141		110		(22)	%
Cloud infrastructure services	48		35		(27)	%	104		67		(36)	%
Software and tools	27		27		—	%	48		56		17	%
Other	5		5		—	%	10		10		—	%
Total	$	245	$	207	(16)	%	$	513	$	406	(21)	%

Technology and development costs decreased by $38 million and $107 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year, primarily due to decreases in employee compensation, benefits, and overhead of $22 million and $47 million and SBC expense of $3 million and $31 million, driven by reduced average headcount as part of our efforts to improve efficiency and operating costs. For the three and six months ended June 30, 2022, SBC expense included a net reduction of $16 million and employee compensation, benefits, and overhead included $6 million of separation related expenses due to the April 2022 Restructuring. Additionally, we experienced decreases in cloud infrastructure services of $13 million and $37 million, primarily due to decreases in user transactions and cost optimization efforts focusing on improvements in utilization of cloud infrastructure. For the six months ended June 30, 2023, these decreases were offset by an $8 million increase in software and tools primarily driven by amortization of internally developed software and other software services utilized in delivering our products.

Operations


	Three Months Ended June 30,					Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		% Change	2022		2023		% Change
Employee compensation, benefits, and overhead, excluding SBC	$	42	$	21	(50)%	$	85	$	42	(51)%
Provision for credit losses and fraud	12		6		(50)%	23		17		(26)%
Customer experience	27		6		(78)%	57		11		(81)%

SBC	1		1		—%	5		3		(40)%

Other	4		2		(50)%	7		5		(29)%
Total	$	86	$	36	(58)%	$	177	$	78	(56)%

Operations costs decreased by $50 million and $99 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year, primarily due to decreases in expenses associated with customer experience of $21 million and $46 million as we consolidated our third-party customer support centers due to overall decreases in user transactions. Additionally, employee compensation, benefits, and overhead decreased $21 million and $43 million, driven by reduced average headcount as part of our efforts to improve efficiency and operating costs. For the three and six months

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ended June 30, 2022, other employee compensation expense included approximately $3 million of separation related expenses due to the April 2022 Restructuring.

Marketing


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		% Change		2022		2023		% Change
Digital marketing	$	5	$	6	20	%	$	11	$	13	18	%
Brand marketing	1		5		400	%	2		11		450	%
Employee compensation, benefits, and overhead, excluding SBC	7		6		(14)	%	16		11		(31)	%

Marketing incentives	3		2		(33)	%	7		3		(57)	%
SBC	(2)		1		150	%	3		2		(33)	%
Other	9		5		(44)	%	16		11		(31)	%
Total	$	23	$	25	9	%	$	55	$	51	(7)	%

For the three months ended June 30, 2023, marketing costs increased slightly by $2 million. For the six months ended June 30, 2023, marketing costs decreased by $4 million, primarily related to a decrease in other employee compensation, benefits, and overhead of $5 million, driven by reduced average headcount as part of our efforts to improve efficiency and operating costs. This decrease was partially offset by an increase in brand marketing of $9 million, primarily due to higher expenses spent on brand advertising campaigns.

General and Administrative


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		% Change		2022		2023		% Change
SBC related to 2021 Founders Award Cancellation	$	—	$	—	NM		$	—	$	485	NM
Employee compensation, benefits, and overhead, excluding SBC	64		58		(9)	%	128		112		(13)	%
SBC excluding 2021 Founders Award Cancellation	105		49		(53)	%	233		103		(56)	%
Legal expenses	17		27		59	%	44		59		34	%
Other professional fees	17		9		(47)	%	33		16		(52)	%
Settlements and penalties	11		—		NM		23		8		(65)	%


Other	12		16		33	%	33		23		(30)	%
Total	$	226	$	159	(30)	%	$	494	$	806	63	%

General and administrative costs decreased by $67 million and increased by $312 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same periods in the prior year. The increase for the six months ended June 30, 2023 was due to the 2021 Founders Award Cancellation of $485 million. For the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, due to reduced average headcount as part of our efforts to improve efficiency and operating costs, other SBC decreased by $56 million and $130 million and employee compensation, benefits, and overhead decreased by $6 million and $16 million. In addition, settlements and penalties decreased by $11 million and $15 million, which were partially offset by increases in legal expenses of $10 million and $15 million. Refer to Note 16 - Commitments & Contingencies of our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this

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Quarterly Report for more information. For the three and six months ended June 30, 2022, other SBC included a net reduction of $6 million and other employee compensation expense included approximately $7 million of separation related expenses due to the April 2022 Restructuring.

Provision for (Benefit from) Income Taxes


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023		% Change		2022		2023		% Change
Provision for (benefit from) income taxes	$	1	$	(3)	(400)	%	$	2	$	(1)	(150)	%

Provision for income taxes decreased by $4 million and $3 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2023, compared to the same period in the prior year, primarily due to the change in business operations related to our ongoing efficiency efforts for the three months ended June 30, 2023, offset by the non-deductible cancellation of the 2021 Founders Award Cancellation, and the change in valuation allowance on our U.S. federal and state deferred tax assets offset by our current taxes payable.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Sources and Uses of Funds

Our principal sources of liquidity are cash flows generated from operations, and our cash, cash equivalents, and liquid investments. Other sources of future funds may include potential borrowing capacity under our revolving lines of credit and potential issuance of new debt or equity. Our liquidity needs are primarily to support and invest in our core business, including investing in new ways to serve our customers, potentially seeking strategic acquisitions to leverage existing capabilities and further build our business, the potential purchase of most or all of the remaining Robinhood shares purchased by Emergent Fidelity Technologies, and for general capital needs (including capital requirements imposed by regulators and SROs and cash deposit and collateral requirements under the rules of the Depository Trust Company (“DTC”), the National Securities Clearing Corporation (“NSCC”), and the Options Clearing Corporation (“OCC”)). Based on our current level of operations, we believe our primary sources of liquidity will be adequate to meet our current liquidity needs for the next 12 months.

Liquid Assets

Our cash and cash equivalents were $6.34 billion and $5.83 billion as of December 31, 2022 and June 30, 2023. Our liquid investment portfolio comprised of available-for-sale securities were $10 million as of December 31, 2022. We had no available-for-sale securities as of June 30, 2023. Held-to-maturity investments that are maturing in one year can also be a source of liquidity, which were $321 million as of June 30, 2023. See Note 7 - Investments and Fair Value Measurement, to our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report for further information.

Revolving Lines of Credit

As of June 30, 2023, we had a total of $2.81 billion in committed revolving lines of credit. See Note 11 - Financing Activities and Off-Balance Sheet Risk, to our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report for further information.

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Commitments

The following table summarizes our short- and long-term material cash requirements as of June 30, 2023:


	Payments Due by Period
(in millions)	Total		Remainder of 2023		2024-2025		2026-2027		Thereafter
Operating lease commitments	$	175	$	16	$	55	$	36	$	68
Purchase commitments(1)	985		240		501		244		—
Total	$	1,160	$	256	$	556	$	280	$	68

(1)Purchase commitments are determined based on contracts that are enforceable and legally binding and that specify all significant terms. They are primarily commitments for cloud infrastructure and data services and business insurance.

In addition to lease and purchase commitments, we have two committed financing agreements: one with a contractual term of 30 days and a daily minimum commitment of $25 million and another with a contractual term of 21 days with a daily minimum commitment of $35 million.

Cash Flows

The following table summarizes our cash flow activities:


	Six Months Ended June 30,
(in millions)	2022		2023
Cash provided by (used in):
Operating activities	$	(826)	$	1,198
Investing activities	(60)		(482)
Financing activities	1		(4)

Cash provided by operating activities increased $2,024 million. The increase consisted of net loss adjusted for certain non-cash items and the effect of changes in operating assets and liabilities. Cash provided by operating activities resulting from net loss adjusted for certain non-cash items increased by $526 million. This was primarily due to lower net loss and higher SBC expense during six months ended June 30, 2023 as a result of the 2021 Founders Award Cancellation. Cash provided by operating activities resulting from changes in operating assets and liabilities increased $1,498 million. The increase was primarily driven by increases of $3,432 million for securities loaned and $1,090 million in payables to users, partially offset by decreases of $2,584 million for receivables from users, net and $377 million for securities borrowed.

Cash used in investing activities increased $422 million compared to the prior period. The change was primarily driven by an increase in cash used in investing activities of $485 million from purchases of held-to-maturity investments, partially offset by an increase of $5 million in cash provided by investing activities related to proceeds from maturities of available-for-sale investments.

Cash used in financing activities increased $5 million compared to the prior period which was primarily driven by decreases of $4 million in cash provided by financing activities from proceeds from issuance of common stock from the Employee Share Purchase Plan (”ESPP”) and $3 million from proceeds from exercise of stock options, net of repurchases.

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Regulatory Capital Requirements

Our broker-dealer subsidiaries (RHF and RHS) are subject to the SEC Uniform Net Capital Rule, administered by the SEC and FINRA, which requires the maintenance of minimum net capital, as defined. Net capital and the related net capital requirements may fluctuate on a daily basis. RHS and RHF compute net capital under the alternative method as permitted by the SEC Uniform Net Capital Rule.

The table below summarizes the net capital, capital requirements, and excess net capital of RHS and RHF:


	June 30, 2023
(in millions)	Net Capital		Required Net Capital		Net Capital in Excess of Required Net Capital
RHS	$	2,639	$	71	$	2,568
RHF	$	342	$	0.25	$	342

As of June 30, 2023, our broker-dealer subsidiaries were in compliance with their respective regulatory capital requirements.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with GAAP. The preparation of these unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements requires estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, revenues and expenses, and related disclosures of contingent liabilities in our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes. The SEC has defined a company’s critical accounting policies as the ones that are most important to the portrayal of the company’s financial condition and results of operations, and which require the company to make its most difficult and subjective judgments, often as a result of the need to make estimates of matters that are inherently uncertain. We also have other key accounting policies, which involve the use of estimates, judgments, and assumptions that are significant to understanding our results. Although we believe that our estimates, assumptions, and judgments are reasonable, they are based upon information presently available. Actual results might differ significantly from these estimates under different assumptions, judgments, or conditions.

There have been no material changes to our critical accounting estimates during the six months ended June 30, 2023, as compared to those disclosed in “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations — Critical Accounting Estimates” in our 2022 Form 10-K.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

See Item 1 of Part I, “Unaudited Financial Statements — Note 2 - Recent Accounting Pronouncements.”

ITEM 3. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DISCLOSURES ABOUT MARKET RISK

Market risk generally represents the risk of loss that may result from the potential change in the value of a financial instrument as a result of fluctuations in interest rates and market prices. Information relating to quantitative and qualitative disclosures about these market risks is described below.

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Interest Rate Risk

Our exposure to changes in interest rates primarily relates to interest earned on our cash and cash equivalents, cash and cash equivalents segregated under federal and other regulations, deposits with clearing organizations, restricted cash, investments in debt securities and margin loans. We use a net interest sensitivity analysis to evaluate the effect that changes in interest rates might have on total net revenues. The results of the analysis based on our financial position as of June 30, 2023, indicate that a hypothetical 100 basis point decrease in interest rates would have had a negatively correlated impact of approximately 11% on total net revenues.

Our investment policy and strategy are focused on the preservation of capital and supporting our liquidity requirements. We invest in highly-rated debt securities that were considered held-to-maturity investments with average duration in the portfolio less than a year and the maximum maturity of two years. To provide a meaningful assessment of the interest rate risk associated with our investment portfolio, we performed a sensitivity analysis to determine the impact a change in interest rates would have on the value of the investment portfolio assuming a 100 basis point parallel shift in the yield curve. Based on investment positions as of June 30, 2023, a hypothetical 100 basis point increase in interest rates across all maturities would not be significant. Any losses would only be realized if we sold the investments prior to maturity.

We also have exposure to changes in interest rates related to our variable-rate credit facilities. See Note 11 - Financing Activities and Off-Balance Sheet Risk, to our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report for further information. However, as there were no outstanding borrowings under our credit facilities as of June 30, 2023, we had limited financial exposure associated with changes in interest rates as of such date.

We have established a comprehensive interest rate risk management policy, which formalizes our approach to managing interest rate risk arising in connection with the operation of our businesses. The policy sets forth policies and procedures pursuant to which we will identify interest rate risk exposure, identify and implement appropriate hedging strategies and hedging instruments, and analyze the effectiveness of our hedging strategies. Interest rate instruments will be used for hedging purposes only and not for speculation.

Our measurement of interest rate risk involves assumptions that are inherently uncertain and, as a result, our analysis might not precisely estimate the actual impact of changes in interest rates on net interest revenues. Actual results may differ from simulated results due to balance growth or decline and the timing, magnitude, and frequency of interest rate changes, as well as changes in market conditions and management strategies, including changes in asset and liability mix.

Market-Related Credit Risk

We are indirectly exposed to equity securities risk in connection with securities collateralizing margin receivables, as well as risk related to our securities lending activities. We manage risk on margin and securities-based lending by requiring customers to maintain collateral in compliance with internal and, as applicable, regulatory guidelines. We monitor required margin levels daily and require our customers to deposit additional collateral, or to reduce positions, when necessary. We continuously monitor customer accounts to detect excessive concentration, large orders or positions, and other activities that indicate increased risk to us. We manage risks associated with our securities lending activities by requiring credit approvals for counterparties, by monitoring the market value of securities loaned and collateral values for securities borrowed on a daily basis, by requiring additional cash as collateral for securities loaned or return of collateral for securities borrowed when necessary, and by participating in a risk-sharing program offered through the OCC.

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ITEM 4. CONTROLS AND PROCEDURES

Evaluation of Disclosure Controls and Procedures

Our management, with the participation of our Chief Executive Officer and our Chief Financial Officer, has evaluated the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures as of the end of the period covered by this Quarterly Report. The term “disclosure controls and procedures,” as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Exchange Act, means controls and other procedures of a company that are designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is recorded, processed, summarized, and reported, within the time periods specified in the SEC’s rules and forms. Disclosure controls and procedures include, without limitation, controls and procedures designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by a company in the reports that it files or submits under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to our management, including our principal executive and principal financial officers, or persons performing similar functions, as appropriate to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosure. Management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving their objectives and management necessarily applies its judgment in evaluating the cost-benefit relationship of possible controls and procedures. Based on such evaluation, our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer have concluded that, as of the end of the period covered by this Quarterly Report, our disclosure controls and procedures were effective.

Changes in Internal Control Over Financial Reporting

There has been no change in our internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rule 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f) under the Exchange Act) during the three months ended June 30, 2023 that has materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

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PART II

ITEM 1. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS

See Item 1 of Part I, “Unaudited Financial Statements — Note 16 - Commitments & Contingencies.”

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ITEM 1A. RISK FACTORS

A description of the risks and uncertainties associated with our business is set forth below. You should carefully consider the risks and uncertainties described below, as well as the other information included in this Quarterly Report, including our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements and the related notes and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.” Our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects could be materially and adversely affected by any of these risks or uncertainties. In that case, the trading price of our Class A common stock could decline, and you could lose all or part of your investment. The risks and uncertainties described below are not the only ones we face. Additional risks and uncertainties that we are unaware of or that we currently see as immaterial might also adversely affect our business. Some statements in this Quarterly Report, including statements in the following risk factors, constitute forward-looking statements. Please refer to “Cautionary Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements.”

Summary of Risk Factors

Our business is subject to a number of risks and uncertainties including those described at length in the Risk Factors section below. We consider the following to be our most material risks:

•We might not grow in line with historical rates.

•We have limited operating experience at our current scale, which subjects us to a number of uncertainties, risks, and difficulties that could adversely affect our business.

•Our results of operations and other operating metrics fluctuate from quarter to quarter, which makes these metrics difficult to predict.

•We have incurred operating losses in the past and might not be profitable in the future.

•Factors that affect transaction-based revenue — such as reduced spreads in securities pricing, reduced levels of trading activity generally, changes in our business relationships with market makers, and any new regulation of, or any bans on, PFOF and similar practices — might result in reduced profitability, increased compliance costs, and negative publicity.

•We are directly and indirectly exposed to fluctuations in interest rates, and rapidly changing interest rate environments could reduce our net interest revenues and otherwise result in reduced profitability.

•As registered broker-dealers, we are subject to “best execution” requirements under SEC guidelines and FINRA rules. We could be penalized if we fail to comply with these requirements and these requirements might be modified in the future in a way that could harm our business.

•We might need additional capital to provide liquidity and support business growth and objectives, and this capital might not be available to us on reasonable terms, if at all, might result in stockholder dilution, or might be delayed or prohibited by applicable regulations.

•Unfavorable media coverage and other events that harm our brand and reputation could adversely affect our revenue and the size, engagement, and loyalty of our customer base.

•Our business has been and might continue to be harmed by changes in business, economic, or political conditions that impact global financial markets, or by a systemic market event.

•Our future success depends on the continuing efforts of our key employees and our ability to attract and retain senior management and other highly skilled personnel.

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•Our business is subject to extensive, complex and changing laws and regulations, and related regulatory proceedings and investigations. Changes in these laws and regulations, or our failure to comply with these laws and regulations, could harm our business.

•We have been subject to regulatory investigations, actions, and settlements and we expect to continue to be subject to such proceedings in the future, which could cause us to incur substantial costs or require us to change our business practices in a materially adverse manner.

•We are involved in numerous litigation matters that are expensive and time consuming, and, if resolved adversely, could expose us to significant liability and reputational harm.

•We operate in highly competitive markets, and many of our competitors have greater resources than we do and may have products and services that are more appealing than ours to our current or potential customers.

•If we fail to retain existing customers or attract new customers, or if our customers decrease their use of our products and services, our revenue will decline.

•If we fail to provide and monetize new and innovative products and services that are adopted by customers, our business may become less competitive and our revenue might decline.

•Our products and services rely on software and systems that are highly technical and have been, and may in the future be, subject to interruption, instability, and other potential flaws due to software errors, design defects, and other processing, operational, and technological failures, whether internal or external.

•We rely on third parties to perform some key functions, and their failure to perform those functions could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

•Our business could be materially and adversely affected by a cybersecurity breach or other attack involving our computer systems or data or those of our customers or third-party service providers.

•If we do not maintain the net capital levels required by regulators, our broker-dealer business may be restricted and we may be fined or subject to other disciplinary or corrective actions.

•Our compliance and risk management policies and procedures as a regulated financial services company might not be fully effective in identifying or mitigating compliance and risk exposure in all market environments or against all types of risk.

•The prices of most cryptocurrencies are extremely volatile. Fluctuations in the price of various cryptocurrencies might cause uncertainty in the market and could negatively impact trading volumes of cryptocurrencies, which would adversely affect the success of our business, financial condition and results of operations.

•Our support for Crypto Transfers, Robinhood Wallet, Robinhood Connect, the Robinhood Cash Card (each as defined below), X1 Card, spending accounts, and other payments services increases the risk that our platform could be exploited to facilitate illegal payments, potentially resulting in loss of customer assets, customer disputes, and other liabilities, which could harm our reputation and adversely impact trading volumes and transaction-based revenues.

•Substantial future issuances or sales of shares of our Class A common stock in the public market could result in significant dilution to our stockholders and such issuances or sales, or the perception that they may occur, could cause the trading price of our Class A common stock to fall.

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•The multi-class structure of our common stock has the effect of concentrating voting power with our founders, which limits your ability to influence the outcome of matters submitted to our stockholders for approval. In addition, the Founders’ Voting Agreement (as defined below) and any future issuances of our Class C common stock could prolong the duration of our founders’ voting control.

Risks Related to Our Business

We might not grow in line with historical rates.

We have grown rapidly over the last few years. In particular, from March 2020 through June 2021, we experienced a significant increase in revenue, MAU, AUC, and Net Cumulative Funded Accounts. For example, for fiscal years 2019, 2020, and 2021, our revenue was $278 million, $958 million and $1,815 million, respectively, representing annual growth of 245% in 2020 and 89% in 2021. Similarly, at year-end 2019, 2020, and 2021 we had Net Cumulative Funded Accounts of 5.1 million, 12.5 million, and 22.7 million, respectively, representing annual growth of 143% in 2020 and 82% in 2021.

However, the circumstances that accelerated the growth of our business over the last few years, including an extended period of general macroeconomic growth in the U.S., as well as growth in the financial services and technology industries in which we operate, did not continue in 2022 and the first half of 2023 and might not return in the future. For example, for fiscal year 2022, our revenue was $1,358 million, representing an annual decline of 25%, and we had Net Cumulative Funded Accounts of 23 million, representing an annual growth of only 1%. In addition, following the March 2020 onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, we saw substantial growth in our user base, retention, engagement, and trading activity metrics, and we saw periodic all-time highs achieved by the equity markets generally. During this period, market volatility, stay-at-home orders, and increased interest in investing and personal finance, coupled with low interest rates and a positive market environment, especially in the U.S. equity and cryptocurrency markets, helped foster an environment that encouraged an unprecedented number of first-time retail investors to become our users and begin trading on our platform. As the COVID-19 pandemic began to subside in the second half of 2021 and the related circumstances that accelerated the growth of our business did not continue, we saw the growth of our user base in recent periods slow compared to the accelerated growth we experienced in 2020 and the first half of 2021. You should not rely on our revenue or key business metrics for any previous quarterly or annual period as any indication of our revenue, revenue growth, key business metrics or key business metrics growth in future periods.

We might continue to experience declines in the growth of our business (or negative growth) as a result of a number of factors, including slowing demand for our platform, insufficient growth in the number of customers that utilize our platform, declines in the level of usage of our platform by existing customers, macroeconomic factors, increasing competition, a decrease in the growth of our overall market, or our failure to continue to capitalize on growth opportunities, including as a result of our inability to scale to meet such growth and economic conditions that have, in some instances, and could continue to reduce financial activity and the maturation of our business, among others. Any failure to successfully address these risks and challenges as we encounter them, will negatively affect our growth. If our revenue growth rate continues to decline, investors’ perceptions of our business and the trading price of our Class A common stock could be adversely affected.

We have limited operating experience at our current scale, which subjects us to a number of uncertainties, risks, and difficulties that could adversely affect our business.

We have expanded our operations rapidly, including continuing to introduce new products and services in our platform, and have limited operating experience at our current scale, which makes it difficult to evaluate our current business and future prospects, and subjects us to a number of uncertainties, including our ability to plan for, model, and manage potential future growth and risks. For example, in 2020 and the first half of 2021, we went through a period of hyper growth accelerated by several factors including pandemic lockdowns, low interest rates, and fiscal stimulus. However, as a result of the general downturn in economic conditions and the U.S. equity markets in 2022, we announced two restructurings in April 2022 (the “April 2022 Restructuring”) and August of 2022 (the “August 2022

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Restructuring”) that impacted approximately 1,100 employees and scaled back hiring plans. As part of our ongoing efforts in the normal course of business, we continuously evaluate whether we are appropriately staffed to be cost efficient. From time to time we have reduced our staff in certain departments as we saw increased productivity and opportunities for greater efficiency under a leaner operating model while continuing to deliver great service and innovation for our customers.

Such efforts to control costs have in the past resulted, and might in the future continue to result in reduced productivity and deteriorating workforce morale, which can cause our business initiatives to suffer. However, if market conditions improve, we also face a risk that renewed business growth could strain our existing resources, or that we are not able to effectively scale up in response, and we could experience ongoing operating difficulties in managing our business across numerous jurisdictions, including difficulties in hiring, training, and managing a dispersed employee base.

We have also encountered, and will continue to encounter, risks and difficulties frequently experienced by companies in rapidly changing and heavily regulated industries, including challenges associated with achieving market acceptance of our products and services, attracting and retaining customers, and complying with laws and regulations (particularly those that are subject to evolving interpretations and application), as well as increased competition and the complexities of managing expenses as we expand our business. We might fail to adequately address these and other challenges we may face, and our business might be adversely affected if we do not manage these risks successfully.

Our results of operations and other operating metrics fluctuate from quarter to quarter, which makes these metrics difficult to predict.

Our results of operations are heavily reliant on the level of trading activity on our platform and net deposits. In the past, our results of operations and other operating metrics have fluctuated from quarter to quarter, including due to movements and trends in the underlying markets, changes in general economic conditions, interest in investing, and fluctuations in trading levels generally, each of which is outside our control and will continue to be outside of our control. As a result, period-to-period comparisons of our results of operations might not be meaningful, and our past results of operations should not be relied on as indicators of future performance. Further, we are subject to additional risks and uncertainties that are frequently encountered by companies in rapidly evolving markets. Our financial condition and results of operations in any given quarter can be influenced by numerous factors, including the occurrence of any of the risks described elsewhere in this Risk Factors section, many of which we are unable to predict or are outside of our control. Factors contributing to quarterly fluctuations could include, among others:

•our ability to retain and engage existing customers and attract new customers;

•the timing and success of new product and service introductions by us or our competitors, or other changes in the competitive landscape of our market;

•volatility in the market generally or the occurrence of so-called “meme” trading in equities, options, or cryptocurrencies, which can cause our trading volumes to fluctuate;

•fluctuations in interest rates;

•increases in marketing, sales, compensation (for example, due to increased hiring competition for highly skilled personnel), cloud infrastructure, and other operating expenses that we might incur to grow and expand our operations and to remain competitive;

•the timing and amount of non-cash expenses, such as SBC and asset impairment;

•the success of our expansion into new markets;

•trading volume and the prevailing trading prices for cryptocurrencies, which can be highly volatile;

•ceasing support for certain cryptocurrencies on our platform that the SEC or a court has asserted or determined are securities or proactively removing certain cryptocurrencies because they share similarities with such cryptocurrencies;

•changes in the public’s perception, adoption, and use of cryptocurrencies and other asset classes;

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•any inability of customers to place trades, due to system disruptions, outages, or trading restrictions;

•any events that damage customer confidence in Robinhood, such as breaches of security or privacy;

•the impacts of public health threats (including pandemics such as COVID-19), unemployment, and inflation; and

•changes in tax laws or judicial or regulatory interpretations of tax laws, which are recorded in the period such laws are enacted or interpretations are issued, and might significantly affect the effective tax rate of that period.

Any of the factors above or listed elsewhere in this Risk Factors section, or the cumulative effect of some of those factors, could result in significant fluctuations in our results of operations.

We have incurred operating losses in the past and might not be profitable in the future.

We incurred operating losses each year from our inception in 2013 through 2019, including GAAP net losses of $6 million, $58 million, and $107 million for years 2017, 2018, and 2019, respectively. Although we generated positive GAAP net income for 2020, we returned to a net loss position for 2021 and 2022 as our operating expenses increased substantially. While we generated positive net income in the second quarter of 2023, we might not be able to sustain our revenue and/or further reduce our operating expenses by sufficient amounts to continue to generate net income in the future.

Factors that affect transaction-based revenue — such as reduced spreads in securities pricing, reduced levels of trading activity generally, changes in our business relationships with market makers, and any new regulation of, or any bans on, PFOF and similar practices — might result in reduced profitability, increased compliance costs, and negative publicity.

A large portion of our revenue is transaction-based, in that we receive consideration in exchange for routing our users’ equity, option, and cryptocurrency trade orders to market makers for execution. With respect to equities and options trading, such fees are known as payment for order flow, or “PFOF.” With respect to cryptocurrency trading, we receive “Transaction Rebates.” Our transaction-based revenue is sensitive to and dependent on trading volumes and therefore tends to decline during periods in which we experience decreased levels of trading generally. Computer-generated buy/sell programs and other technological advances and regulatory changes in the marketplace might continue to tighten spreads on transactions, which could also lead to a decrease in our PFOF earned from market makers. In addition, the regulatory landscape involving cryptocurrencies is subject to change and is experiencing rapid evolution, and future regulatory actions or policies, including for instance, the assertion of jurisdiction by domestic and foreign regulators and governments over cryptocurrency and cryptocurrency markets, could reduce demand for cryptocurrency trading and might materially decrease our revenue derived from Transaction Rebates in absolute terms and as a proportion of our total revenues. In addition, to the extent that the SEC or a court asserts or determines that any cryptocurrencies supported by our platform are securities, we might not continue to facilitate trading of those cryptocurrencies (including ceasing support for such cryptocurrencies on our platform) or it might cause us to proactively remove certain cryptocurrencies from our platform because they share similarities with such cryptocurrencies.

Risks Related to our Business Relationships with Market Makers

Our PFOF and Transaction Rebate arrangements with market makers are a matter of practice and business understanding and not documented under binding contracts. If any of these market makers were unwilling to continue to receive orders from us or to pay us for those orders (including, for example, as a result of unusually high volatility), we might have little to no recourse and, if there are no other market makers that are willing to receive such orders from us or to pay us for such orders, or if we are unable to find replacement market makers in a timely manner, our transaction-based revenue would be negatively impacted. This risk is particularly heightened for cryptocurrencies because fewer market

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makers are currently able to execute cryptocurrency trades. For instance, in May 2023, two prominent market makers announced their respective decisions to limit their offerings in cryptocurrency trading within the United States. Without additional market makers supporting cryptocurrencies entering the industry in the United States, the risk that we may be unable to find suitable market makers to support cryptocurrencies is increasingly heightened. Furthermore, if market makers decide to alter our fee structure, our transaction-based revenue could significantly decrease.

Risks Related to Regulation of PFOF

PFOF practices have drawn heightened scrutiny from the U.S. Congress, the SEC, state regulators, and other regulatory and legislative authorities. For example, in December 2020, we settled an SEC investigation into our best execution and PFOF practices and are defending putative class actions in federal district courts relating to the same factual allegations. Additionally, our PFOF practices were the subject of a line of critical questioning during a February 18, 2021 U.S. Congressional hearing related to the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions. We also face the risk that the SEC, other regulatory authorities, or legislative bodies might adopt additional regulation or legislation relating to PFOF practices as a result of such heightened scrutiny or otherwise. For instance, in December 2022, the SEC proposed four separate equity market structure rules (the “December 2022 Rule Proposals”) related to (i) best execution; (ii) order competition, including requiring certain retail equity orders to be exposed in auctions before being internalized; (iii) order execution disclosure; and (iv) order tick size and fee caps. Although these proposed rules related to market structure design do not ban PFOF, they introduce new requirements around “conflicted transactions,” and if adopted as proposed, they would have the indirect effect of making PFOF more difficult or impossible to earn and condensing the revenues we could theoretically earn. Any new or heightened PFOF regulation, including the December 2022 Rule Proposals if adopted as proposed, could result in increased compliance costs and otherwise materially decrease our transaction-based revenue, might make it more difficult for us to expand our platform in certain jurisdictions, and could require us to make significant changes to our revenue model, which changes might not be successful. Because some of our competitors either do not engage in PFOF or derive a lower percentage of their revenues from PFOF than we do, any such heightened regulation or a ban of PFOF could have an outsized impact on our results of operations. Furthermore, depending on the nature of any new requirements, heightened regulation could also increase our risk of potential regulatory violations and civil litigation, which could result in fines or other penalties, as well as negative publicity.

Risks Related to Negative Publicity Associated with PFOF or our Market Makers

Additionally, any negative publicity surrounding PFOF or Transaction Rebate practices generally, or our implementation of these practices, could harm our brand and reputation. For example, as a result of the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions, we faced allegations that our decision to temporarily prevent our customers from purchasing specified securities was influenced by our relationship with certain market makers. Furthermore, as registered broker-dealers, market makers must comply with rules and regulations that are generally intended to prohibit them from taking advantage of information they obtain while executing orders (e.g., through the prohibition on “front running”). Market makers also have a duty to seek "best execution" of customers’ equity and option orders we send to them. If the market makers we use to execute our customer’s equity and option trades were to violate such rules and regulations and use this data for their own benefit in violation of applicable rules and regulations, it could result in negative publicity for us by association. Developments in any proposals related to the regulation of PFOF or market structure design have generated and might continue to generate negative publicity associated with PFOF. For example, the intra-day trading price of our Class A common stock fell as much as 5.3% on December 14, 2022, the day the December 2022 Rule Proposals were announced.

Additionally, if our customers or potential customers believe that they might get better execution quality (including better price improvement) directly from stock exchanges or from our competitors that have different execution arrangements, or if our customers perceive our PFOF practices to create a conflict of interest between us and them, or if they begin to disfavor the specific market markers with

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which we do business due to any negative media attention, they might come to have an adverse view of our business model and might decide to limit or cease the use of our platform. Some customers might prefer to invest through our competitors that do not engage in PFOF or Transaction Rebate practices or engage in them differently than do we. Any such loss of customer engagement as a result of any negative publicity associated with PFOF or Transaction Rebate practices could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We are directly and indirectly exposed to fluctuations in interest rates, and rapidly changing interest rate environments could reduce our net interest revenues and otherwise result in reduced profitability.

A large portion of our revenue comes from interest income earned from our corporate cash and investment portfolio, our securities lending activities, cash sweep, and from interest-rate sensitive assets, including receivables from users’ margin-borrowing and other assets underlying the customer balances we hold on our balance sheets as customer accounts. Interest rates are the key driver of our net interest income and are subject to many factors beyond our control. As interest rates increased starting in 2022, interest income has contributed an increasing share of our total net revenues. Reductions in interest rates and a return to a low interest rate environment would negatively impact our net income and adversely impact our customers’ returns on their cash deposits. For a more detailed discussion of interest rate risk and an estimate of how a hypothetical 100 basis point increase or decrease in interest rates could affect our total net revenues, see “Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk—Interest Rate Risk” elsewhere in this report. Changes to the level or mix of interest earning balances could also negatively impact our net income if customers react to the rising interest rate environment by moving cash that would have otherwise been spent on services or products with higher revenue potential for Robinhood into Robinhood accounts that offer customers high interest rates.

Higher interest rates also lead to higher payment obligations by our customers to us and to their creditors under mortgage, credit card, and other consumer and merchant loans, which might reduce our customers’ ability to satisfy their obligations to us, including failing to pay for securities purchased, deliver securities sold, or meet margin calls, and therefore lead to increased delinquencies, charge-offs, and allowances for loan and interest receivables, which could have an adverse effect on our net income. Fluctuations in interest rates could adversely impact our customers’ general spending levels and ability and willingness to invest through our platform.

As registered broker-dealers, we are subject to “best execution” requirements under SEC guidelines and FINRA rules. We could be penalized if we fail to comply with these requirements and these requirements might be modified in the future in a way that could harm our business.

As registered broker-dealers, we are subject to “best execution” requirements under SEC guidelines and FINRA rules, which requires us to obtain the best reasonably available terms for customer orders. As previously disclosed, in December 2019 and 2020, we settled an SEC investigation and FINRA disciplinary action, respectively, that related to our best execution practices. We face a risk of additional investigations or penalties in the future related to our best execution practices.

We also might be adversely affected in the future by regulatory changes related to our obligations with regard to best execution. In particular, receipt of PFOF and best execution requirements have drawn heightened scrutiny from the U.S. Congress, the SEC, and other regulatory and legislative authorities, who have at times alleged that PFOF arrangements, like those we have with our market makers, can result in harm to customer execution quality. For instance, one of the December 2022 Rule Proposals relates to best execution and proposes to enhance the existing regulatory framework concerning the duty of best execution by, among other things, requiring additional policies and procedures for broker-dealers engaging in certain conflicted transactions with retail customers. There is a risk that these bodies might adopt additional regulation relating to PFOF practices and best execution requirements as a result of

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such heightened scrutiny or otherwise. Any such regulations could have a material adverse impact on our business and one of our primary sources of revenue.

We might need additional capital to provide liquidity and support business growth and objectives, and this capital might not be available to us on reasonable terms, if at all, might result in stockholder dilution, or might be delayed or prohibited by applicable regulations.

Maintaining adequate liquidity is crucial to our securities brokerage and our money services business operations, including key functions such as transaction settlement, custody requirements, and margin lending. The SEC and FINRA also have stringent rules with respect to the maintenance of specific levels of net capital by securities broker-dealers. We meet our liquidity needs primarily from working capital and cash generated by customer activity, as well as from external debt and equity financing. Despite these resources, increases in the number of customers, and fluctuations in customer cash or deposit balances, as well as market conditions or changes in regulatory treatment of customer deposits, could affect our ability to meet our liquidity needs. We might be adversely affected in the future by regulatory changes related to our obligations with regard to capital maintenance requirements. For example, in July 2023, the SEC proposed amendments to the broker-dealer customer protection rule (SEC Rule 15c3-3) to require certain broker-dealers to compute their customer and broker-dealer reserve deposit requirements, and to make any required deposits, daily rather than weekly. Any such amendments could make it more difficult for us to comply with these regulations.

In addition, our clearing and carrying broker-dealer is subject to cash deposit and collateral requirements under the rules of the clearinghouses in which it participates (including DTC, NSCC, and OCC), which requirements fluctuate significantly from time to time based upon the nature and volume of customers’ trading activity and volatility in the market or individual securities. If we fail to meet any such deposit requirements, our ability to settle trades through the clearinghouse may be suspended or we might be forced to restrict trading in certain stocks in order to limit clearinghouse deposit requirements. For example, from January 28 to February 5, 2021, due to increased deposit requirements imposed on our clearing and carrying broker-dealer by NSCC in response to unprecedented market volatility, particularly in certain securities, we implemented the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions. This resulted in negative media attention, customer dissatisfaction, reputational harm, litigation, and regulatory and U.S. Congressional inquiries and investigations, as well as capital raising by us in order to lift the trading restrictions while remaining in compliance with our net capital and deposit requirements. We face a risk that similar events could occur in the future and, if we are unable to satisfy our deposit requirements, the clearinghouse may cease to act for us and may liquidate our unsettled clearing portfolio.

A reduction in our liquidity position could reduce our customers’ confidence in us, which could result in the withdrawal of customer assets and loss of customers, or could cause us to fail to satisfy broker-dealer or other regulatory capital guidelines, which may result in immediate suspension of securities activities, regulatory prohibitions against certain business practices, increased regulatory inquiries and reporting requirements, increased costs, fines, penalties or other sanctions, including suspension or expulsion by the SEC, FINRA or other SROs or state regulators, and could ultimately lead to the liquidation of our broker-dealers or other regulated entities. Factors which might adversely affect our liquidity positions include temporary liquidity demands due to timing differences between brokerage transaction settlements and the availability of segregated cash balances, timing differences between cryptocurrency transaction settlements between us and our cryptocurrency market makers and between us and our cryptocurrency customers, fluctuations in cash held in customer accounts, a significant increase in our margin lending activities, increased regulatory capital requirements, changes in regulatory guidance or interpretations, other regulatory changes, or a loss of market or customer confidence resulting in unanticipated and/or excessive withdrawals or redemptions, or a suspension of redemptions or withdrawals of customer assets.

We might also need additional capital to continue to support our business and any future growth and to respond to competitive challenges, including the need to promote our products and services, develop new products and services, enhance our existing products, services and operating infrastructure, acquire

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and invest in complementary businesses and technologies, and to fund payments on our obligations at the parent company level, such as any debt obligations we might incur. To meet liquidity needs at the parent level, we might need to rely on dividends, distributions and other payments from our subsidiaries. Regulatory and other legal restrictions might limit our ability to transfer funds to or from some subsidiaries. For example, under FINRA rules applicable to RHS, a dividend of over 10% of a member firm’s excess net capital must not be paid without FINRA’s prior written approval.

When available cash is not sufficient, we might seek to engage in equity or debt financings to secure additional funds. However, such additional funding might not be available on terms attractive to us, or at all, and our inability to obtain additional funding when needed could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations. If we issue equity or convertible debt securities, our stockholders could suffer significant dilution, and the new shares could have rights, preferences and privileges superior to those of our current stockholders. Any debt financing could involve restrictive covenants relating to our capital-raising activities and other financial and operational matters, which might make it more difficult for us to obtain additional capital and to pursue future business opportunities.

As a result of a cease-and-desist order issued by the SEC on December 17, 2020 and our related settlement in connection with the SEC’s investigation of our best execution and receipt of PFOF, we are currently an “ineligible issuer,” as the term is defined under Rule 405 of the Securities Act, and we will remain an ineligible issuer until December 17, 2023. As long as we are an ineligible issuer, we will generally be prevented from using free writing prospectuses and recorded roadshows in securities offerings, and we will not qualify as a “well-known seasoned issuer” (“WKSI”) (which status we otherwise would have achieved by August 2022). We will therefore be unable to take advantage of benefits associated with WKSI status, such as the ability to file universal shelf registration statements on Form S-3 that are automatically effective. These restrictions could impair our ability to raise additional capital quickly in response to changing requirements and market conditions.

Unfavorable media coverage and other events that harm our brand and reputation could adversely affect our revenue and the size, engagement, and loyalty of our customer base.

Our brand and our reputation are two of our most important assets. Our ability to attract, build trust with, engage, and retain existing and new customers might be adversely affected by events that harm our brand and reputation, such as public complaints and unfavorable media coverage about us, our platform, and our customers, even if factually incorrect or based on isolated incidents.

We receive a high volume of media coverage, which has included, and might continue to include, negative coverage regarding our products and services and the risk of our customers’ misuse or misunderstanding of our products and services, inappropriate or otherwise unauthorized behavior by our customers and litigation or regulatory activity. In addition, given our public profile, any unanticipated system disruptions, outages, technical or security-related incidents, or other performance problems relating to our platform, such as the March 2020 Outages, the April-May 2021 Disruptions (as defined below), or the November 2021 Data Security Incident are likely to receive extensive media attention. Furthermore, any negative experiences our customers have in connection with their use of our products and services, including as a result of any such performance problems, could diminish customer confidence in us and our products and services, which could result in unfavorable media coverage or publicity. For example, we received customer complaints and significant media attention as a result of the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions.

Damage to our brand and reputation could also be caused by:

•cybersecurity attacks, privacy or data security breaches, or other security incidents, payment disruptions or other incidents that impact the reliability of our platform;

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•actual or alleged illegal, negligent, reckless, fraudulent or otherwise inappropriate behavior by our management team, our other employees or contractors, our customers or third-party service providers or partners as well as complaints or negative publicity about such individuals or companies;

•future restructurings or any similar such reductions or activities in the future;

•any repeat imposition of temporary trading restrictions (similar to our Early 2021 Trading Restrictions), or any outright failure to meet our deposit requirements;

•litigation involving, or regulatory actions or investigations into, our platform or our business;

•any failures to comply with legal, tax and regulatory requirements;

•any perceived or actual weakness in our financial strength or liquidity;

•any regulatory action that results in changes to, or prohibits us from offering, certain features, products or services;

•any new policies, features, products, or services, or changes to our policies, features, products, or services, that customers or others perceive as overly restrictive, unclear, inconsistent with our values or mission, or not clearly articulated;

•a failure to operate our business in a way that is consistent with our values and mission;

•inadequate or unsatisfactory customer support experiences;

•negative responses by customers or regulators to our business model or to particular features, products or services;

•a failure to adapt to new or changing customer preferences;

•a prolonged weakness in popular equities or cryptocurrencies specifically or in U.S. equity and cryptocurrency markets generally, or a sustained downturn in the U.S. economy; and

•any of the foregoing with respect to our competitors, to the extent the resulting negative perception affects the public’s perception of us or our industry as a whole.

These and other events could negatively impact the willingness of our existing customers, and potential new customers, to do business with us, which could adversely affect our trading volumes and number of funded accounts, as well as our ability to recruit and retain personnel, any of which could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations, as well as the trading price of our Class A common stock. For instance, on November 8, 2022 (the day that FTX Trading Ltd. (“FTX”), a major international cryptocurrency exchange, halted all non-fiat customer withdrawals from its platform), the intra-day trading price of our Class A common stock fell as much as 18%. And in December 2022, shortly after FTX filed for bankruptcy on November 11, 2022, and following the bankruptcies of several other major cryptocurrency trading venues and lending platforms earlier in 2022, including Three Arrows Capital, Ltd., Voyager Digital Holdings, Inc., and Celsius Network LLC (“Celsius”) (collectively, the “2022 Crypto Bankruptcies”), we received an investigative subpoena from the SEC regarding, among other topics, RHC’s cryptocurrency listings, custody of cryptocurrencies, and platform operations.

We could incur substantial losses from our cash and investment accounts if one or more of the financial institutions that we use fails or is taken over by the FDIC.

We maintain cash and investment accounts, as well as restricted cash as certificates of deposits for facility leases and other contractual obligations, at multiple financial institutions in amounts that are significantly in excess of the limits insured by the FDIC. In spring 2023, certain U.S. banks failed and were taken over by the FDIC (the “2023 Banking Events”). If any of the financial institutions where we hold significant deposits were to fail or be taken over by the FDIC, our ability to access such accounts has in the past and could be in the future temporarily or permanently limited, which could adversely affect our business. In particular, while we have taken steps to help ensure that the loss of all or a significant portion of any uninsured amount would not have an adverse effect on our ability to pay our operational expenses

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or make other payments, the failure of a financial institution where we hold significant deposits has in the past and may in the future require us to move funds to another bank, which could cause a temporary delay in making payments to our vendors and employees, or under other contractual arrangements, and cause other operational inconveniences. Additionally, any losses or delay in access to funds as a result of such events could have a material adverse effect on our ability to meet contractual obligations, earnings, financial condition, cash flows, and stock price.

Our business has been and might continue to be harmed by changes in business, economic, or political conditions that impact global financial markets, or by a systemic market event.

As we are a financial services company, our business, results of operations, and reputation are directly and indirectly affected by elements beyond our control, such as economic and political conditions including unemployment rates, inflation, tax and interest rates, geopolitical conflicts, such as the Russian invasion of Ukraine, financial market volatility (such as we experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic), significant increases in the volatility or trading volume of particular securities or cryptocurrencies (such as we experienced during the meme stock events of early 2021 and the Dogecoin surge of mid-2021), broad trends in business and finance, actual events or concerns involving liquidity, defaults, or non-performance by third-party financial institutions or transactional counterparties (such as the 2023 Banking Events), changes in volume of securities or cryptocurrencies trading generally (such as the bear markets that developed for equities and crypto in the second quarter of 2022 and continued into 2023 (the “2022 Bear Markets”)), changes in the markets in which such transactions occur (such as following the 2022 Crypto Bankruptcies), and changes in how such transactions are processed. These elements can arise suddenly and the full impact of such conditions could have an adverse effect on our business results or remain uncertain indefinitely. Because a large percentage of our customers are first time investors, we might be disproportionately affected by declines in investor confidence caused by adverse economic conditions. A prolonged market weakness, such as a slowdown causing reduced trading volume in securities, derivatives, or cryptocurrency markets, has resulted, and could result in the future in reduced revenues and adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations. For example, as a result of the 2022 Bear Markets, for fiscal year 2022, our daily revenue trades for options, equities, and crypto declined by 33%, 49%, and 75%, compared to fiscal year 2021. Conversely, significant upturns in such markets or conditions might cause individuals to be less proactive in seeking ways to improve the returns on their trading or investment decisions and, thus, decrease the demand for our products and services.

Additionally, concerns regarding the U.S. and/or international financial systems, such as in connection with the 2023 Banking Events, could result in less favorable commercial financing terms available to us, including higher interest rates or costs and tighter financial and operating covenants, or systemic limitations on our access to credit and liquidity sources.

Any of these changes could cause our future performance to be uncertain or unpredictable, and could have an adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

Our working model, which allows a subset of our employees to work remotely, subjects us to heightened operational risks.

We currently have a remote work policy, under which a large segment of our employees are not required to come into the office on a daily basis, although we have announced that, effective mid-September, we expect most employees living within 35 miles of any of our offices to resume in-office work at least three days a week (the “Return to Office policy”). Employees who do not live within 35 miles of any of our offices will continue to be allowed to work remotely full-time. Allowing our employees to work remotely subjects us to heightened operational risks. For example, technologies in our employees’ homes might not be as robust or effective as in our offices and could lead to lower productivity and/or increased vulnerability to cybersecurity attacks or other privacy or data security incidents. There is no guarantee that the data security and privacy safeguards we have put in place will be completely effective or that we will not encounter risks associated with employees accessing company data and systems remotely. We also

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face challenges due to the need to operate with a dispersed and remote workforce, as well as increased costs related to business continuity initiatives.

Allowing for remote work has also made and might continue to make it more difficult for us to preserve our corporate culture of innovation and our employees might have decreased opportunities to collaborate in meaningful ways. Further, we cannot guarantee that requiring a subset of employees to resume in-office work, or allowing certain employees to continue to work remotely, will not have a negative impact on employee morale or productivity. Any failure to overcome the challenges presented by our Return to Office policy and remote work policy could harm our future success, including our ability to retain and recruit personnel, innovate and operate effectively, maintain product development velocity, and execute on our business strategy.

Our future success depends on the continuing efforts of our key employees and our ability to attract and retain senior management and other highly skilled personnel.

Our future success depends, in part, on our ability to continue to identify, attract, develop, integrate and retain qualified and highly skilled personnel. In particular, our Co-Founder and CEO, Vladimir Tenev, and our Co-Founder and Chief Creative Officer, Baiju Bhatt, have been critical to the development and execution of our business, vision, and strategic direction. In addition, we have heavily relied, and expect we will continue to heavily rely, on the services and performance of our senior management team, which provides leadership, contributes to the core areas of our business and helps us to efficiently execute our business. Although we have entered into employment offer letters with some of our key personnel, these agreements have no specific duration and are terminable by either party at-will and our senior management team has experienced recent changes. We do not maintain key person life insurance policies on any of our employees.

We also might not be successful in attracting, integrating or retaining qualified personnel to fulfill our current or future needs. In particular, there continues to be particularly high competition in the San Francisco Bay Area for software engineers, computer scientists and other technical personnel. Given our heavy emphasis on SBC, the continuing declines in our stock price (which make previously-granted SBC less valuable) have exacerbated the difficulty of recruiting, retaining, and motivating highly skilled personnel. Additionally, the Return to Office policy may negatively impact our ability to retain and recruit highly skilled personnel, especially to the extent other companies continue to allow more flexible remote working models. Attrition and workforce reorganizations and reductions have also and might continue to adversely affect our reputation among job seekers, demoralize our remaining employees, and result in a loss of institutional know-how, reduced productivity, slower customer service response, reduced effectiveness of internal compliance and risk-mitigation programs, and cancellations of or delays in completing new product developments and other strategic projects. For example, in the periods immediately following the April 2022 Restructuring and August 2022 Restructuring, we experienced higher rates of voluntary employee attrition and declines in reported employee job satisfaction. We might continue to experience difficulty in hiring and retaining highly skilled employees with appropriate qualifications.

We believe that a critical component of our efforts to attract and retain employees has been our corporate culture of innovation. We have invested substantial time and resources in building our team. As we continue to expand internationally, we will face new challenges to maintain our corporate culture of innovation among a larger number of geographically dispersed and remote employees, as well as other service providers. Failure to preserve our company culture could harm our ability to retain and recruit personnel.

If we are unable to attract, integrate, retain, or effectively replace our key employees and qualified and highly skilled personnel, our ability to effectively focus on and pursue our corporate objectives will decline, and our business and future growth prospects could be harmed.

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Future acquisitions of, or investments in, other companies, products, technologies or specialized employees could require significant management attention, disrupt our business, dilute stockholder value, and adversely affect our results of operations.

As part of our business strategy, we have made and might continue to make acquisitions of, or investments in, specialized employees or other compatible companies, products, or technologies. We also have entered into and might continue to enter into relationships with other businesses in order to expand our products and services. Negotiating these transactions can be time-consuming, difficult, and expensive, and our ability to close these transactions might be subject to third-party approvals, such as governmental and other regulatory approvals, which are beyond our control, and may take longer than expected to be obtained, if at all.

For example, in April 2022 we signed a definitive agreement to acquire Ziglu Limited (“Ziglu”), a U.K.-based electronic money institution and crypto-asset firm. However, as a result of prolonged regulatory uncertainty, after careful consideration, we notified Ziglu of the termination of the agreement in February 2023. In connection with the termination of the agreement, we took a $12 million impairment charge, in addition to suffering losses from legal fees and other expenses. Additionally, because we had expected Ziglu’s team and technology to help accelerate our international expansion, the termination of the deal has delayed our plans to expand our operations in Europe, particularly with respect to cryptocurrency trading.

In general, our efforts to grow through acquisitions are subject to the risks that we might be unable to find suitable acquisition or investment candidates or to complete acquisitions on favorable terms or in a timely manner, if at all. Moreover, these kinds of acquisitions or investments can result in unforeseen operating difficulties and expenditures prior to and following closing, including disrupting our ongoing operations, diverting management from their primary responsibilities, subjecting us to additional liabilities, increasing our expenses, and adversely impacting our business, financial condition and results of operations. If we acquire businesses or technologies, we might not be able to integrate the acquired personnel, operations, products, and technologies successfully or face challenges in doing so, or effectively manage the combined business following the acquisition. Moreover, the anticipated benefits of any acquisition or investment might not be realized, the acquisition or investment might not perform in accordance with expectations, and we might be exposed to unknown liabilities.

In connection with these types of transactions, we might issue additional equity securities that would dilute our stockholders, use cash that we might need in the future to operate our business, incur debt on terms unfavorable to us or that we are unable to repay, incur large charges or substantial liabilities, encounter difficulties integrating diverse business cultures, and become subject to adverse tax consequences, substantial depreciation, or deferred compensation charges.

We intend to expand into international markets, which will expose us to significant new risks, and our international expansion efforts might not succeed.

We currently only offer services to the public outside the United States through our web3 self-custodial crypto wallet (the “Robinhood Wallet”), which is available in over 150 countries and offered through our Cayman Islands subsidiary, Robinhood Non-Custodial Ltd. (“RHNC”).

We have publicly stated that we set a goal to offer brokerage services in the U.K. by the end of 2023, and we intend to continue expanding our operations outside of the United States. International expansion will require significant resources and management attention and will subject us to regulatory, economic, operational, and political risks in addition to those we already face in the United States. There are significant risks and costs inherent in establishing and doing business in international markets, including:

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•difficulty establishing and managing international entities, offices, and/or operations and the increased operations, travel, infrastructure, and legal and compliance costs associated with operations, entities, and/or people in different countries or regions;

•the need to understand, interpret and comply with local laws, regulations and customs in multiple jurisdictions, including laws and regulations governing cryptocurrency-related, broker-dealer, money transmitter, or regulated entity practices, some of which might require permissions, registrations, authorizations, licenses or consents, or might be different from, or conflict with, those of other jurisdictions or foreign cybersecurity, data privacy or labor and employment laws;

•the additional complexities of any merger or acquisition activity internationally, which would be new for us and could subject us to additional regulatory scrutiny or approvals;

•the need to adapt, localize, and position our products for specific countries (also known as “product-market fit”);

•increased exposure to foreign fraud vectors;

•increased competition from local providers of similar products and services;

•challenges of obtaining, maintaining, protecting, defending and enforcing intellectual property rights abroad, including the challenge of extending or obtaining third-party intellectual property rights to use various technologies in new countries;

•the need to offer customer support and other aspects of our offering (including websites, articles, blog posts, and customer support documentation) in various languages or locations;

•compliance with anti-bribery and anti-corruption laws, such as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (the “FCPA”) and equivalent anti-money laundering and sanctions rules and requirements in local markets, by us, our employees, and our business partners;

•the need to recruit and manage staff in new countries and regions to support international operations, and comply with employment law, tax, payroll, and benefits requirements in multiple countries;

•the need to enter into new business partnerships with third-party service providers in order to provide products and services in the local market, or to meet regulatory obligations;

•varying levels of internet technology adoption and infrastructure, and increased or varying network and hosting service provider costs and differences in technology service delivery in different countries;

•fluctuations in currency exchange rates and the requirements of currency control regulations, which might restrict or prohibit conversion of other currencies into U.S. dollars;

•double taxation of our international earnings and potentially adverse tax consequences due to requirements of or changes in the income and other tax laws of the United States or the international jurisdictions in which we operate; and

•political or social change or unrest or economic instability in a specific country or region in which we operate.

We have limited experience with international legal and regulatory environments and market practices, and we might not be able to penetrate or successfully operate in the markets we choose to enter. In addition, we might incur significant expenses as a result of our international expansion, and we might not be successful, which could lead to substantial losses.

We are exposed to funding transaction losses due to reversals or insufficient funds.

Some of our products and services are paid for by electronic transfer from customers’ bank accounts which exposes us to risks associated with reversals and insufficient funds. Unwinding of funds transfers

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due to reversals, and insufficient funds could arise from fraud, misuse, unintentional use, settlement delay, or other activities. Also, criminals are using increasingly sophisticated methods to engage in illegal activities, such as counterfeiting and fraud. If we are unable to collect and retain such amounts from the customer, or if the customer refuses or is unable, due to bankruptcy or other reasons, to reimburse us, we bear the loss for the amount of the chargeback, refund, or return.

While we have policies and procedures designed to manage and mitigate these risks, we cannot be certain that such processes will be effective. Our failure to limit returns, including as a result of fraudulent transactions, could lead payment networks or our banking partners to require us to increase reserves, impose penalties on us, charge additional or higher fees, or terminate their relationships with us. These risks may be amplified as we continue to expand our operations internationally and increase our exposure to foreign fraud vectors.

Risks Related to Regulation and Litigation

Our business is subject to extensive, complex and changing laws and regulations, and related regulatory proceedings and investigations. Changes in these laws and regulations, or our failure to comply with these laws and regulations, could harm our business.

We are subject to a wide variety of local, state, federal, and international laws, regulations, licensing schemes, and industry standards in the United States and in other countries in which we operate. These laws, regulations, and standards govern numerous areas that are important to our business, and include, or might in the future include, those relating to all aspects of the securities industry, money transmission, foreign exchange, payments services (such as payment processing and settlement services), cryptocurrency, trading in shares and fractional shares, fraud detection, consumer protection, anti-money laundering, escheatment, sanctions regimes and export controls, data privacy, data protection, and data security.

The substantial costs and uncertainties related to complying with these regulations continue to increase, and our introduction of new products or services, expansion of our business into new jurisdictions or subindustries, acquisitions of other businesses that operate in similar regulated spaces, or other actions that we may take might subject us to additional laws, regulations, or other government or regulatory scrutiny. Regulations are intended to ensure the integrity of financial markets, to maintain appropriate capitalization of broker-dealers and other financial services companies, and to protect customers and their assets. These regulations could limit our business activities through capital, customer protection, and market conduct requirements, as well as restrictions on the activities that we are authorized to conduct.

We operate in a highly regulated industry and, despite our efforts to comply with applicable legal requirements, like all companies in our industry, we must adapt to frequent changes in laws and regulations, and face complexity in interpreting and applying evolving laws and regulations to our business, heightened scrutiny of the conduct of financial services firms and increasing penalties for violations of applicable laws and regulations. We might fail to establish and enforce procedures that comply with applicable legal requirements and regulations. We might be adversely affected by new laws or regulations, changes in the interpretation of existing laws or regulations, or more rigorous enforcement. We also might be adversely affected by other regulatory changes related to our obligations with regard to suitability of financial products, supervision, sales practices, application of fiduciary or best interest standards (including the interpretation of what constitutes an “investment recommendation” for the purposes of the SEC’s “Regulation Best Interest” and state securities laws) and best execution in the context of our business and market structure, any of which could limit our business, increase our costs and damage our reputation.

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Broker-Dealer Regulation

As broker-dealers, our subsidiaries RHF and RHS are subject to extensive regulation by federal and state regulators and SROs, and are subject to laws and regulations covering all aspects of the securities industry. Federal and state regulators and SROs, including the SEC and FINRA, can among other things investigate, censure or fine us, issue cease-and-desist orders or otherwise restrict our operations, require changes to our business practices, products or services, limit our acquisition activities or suspend or expel a broker-dealer or any of its officers or employees. Similarly, state attorneys general and other state regulators, including state securities and financial services regulators, can bring legal actions on behalf of the citizens of their states to assure compliance with state laws. In addition, criminal authorities such as state attorneys general or the DOJ may institute civil or criminal proceedings against us for violating applicable laws, rules, or regulations.

Money-Transmitter Regulation

As money transmitters, certain of our subsidiaries are subject to regulation, primarily at the state level. We are also subject to regulation by the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (“CFPB”). We have obtained or are in the process of obtaining licenses to operate as a money transmitter (or as another type of regulated financial services institution, as applicable) in the United States and in the states where this is required. As a licensed money transmitter, we are subject to obligations and restrictions with respect to the movement of customer funds, reporting requirements, bonding requirements, and inspection by state regulatory agencies concerning those aspects of our business considered money transmission. Evaluation of our compliance efforts, as well as the questions of whether and to what extent our products and services are considered money transmission, are matters of regulatory interpretation and could change over time. There are substantial costs and potential product and operational changes involved in maintaining and renewing these licenses, certifications, and approvals, and we could be subject to fines, other enforcement actions, and litigation if we are found to violate any of these requirements. There can be no assurance that we will be able to (or decide to) continue to apply for or obtain any such licenses, renewals, certifications, and approvals in any jurisdictions. In certain markets, we might rely on local banks or other partners to process payments and conduct foreign currency exchange transactions in local currency, and local regulators might use their authority over such local partners to prohibit, restrict, or limit us from doing business. The need to obtain or maintain these licenses, certifications, or other regulatory approvals could impose substantial additional costs, delay or preclude planned transactions, product launches or improvements, require significant and costly operational changes, impose restrictions, limitations, or additional requirements on our business, products, and services, or prevent us from providing our products or services in a given market.

We have been subject to regulatory investigations, actions, and settlements and we expect to continue to be subject to such proceedings in the future, which could cause us to incur substantial costs or require us to change our business practices in a materially adverse manner.

From time to time, we have been subject, and, given the highly regulated nature of the industries in which we operate, we expect that we will be subject in the future, to a number of legal and regulatory examinations and investigations arising out of our business practices and operations, conducted by the SEC or FINRA, other federal agencies such as the U.S. Department of Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (“OFAC”), and state regulatory agencies, such as the MSD, the California Attorney General’s Office, and the New York State Department of Financial Services (“NYDFS”), among other authorities. These examinations and investigations have in some instances in the past and might in the future lead to lawsuits, arbitration claims, and enforcement proceedings, as well as other actions and claims, that result in injunctions, fines, penalties, and monetary settlements. For example:

•In December 2020, we settled an SEC investigation under which we paid a $65 million civil penalty and agreed to engage an independent compliance consultant.

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•In June 2021, we resolved multiple matters with FINRA (including investigations into systems outages, our options product offering, and margin-related communications with customers), resulting in censure, fines and restitution of $70 million, and engagement of an independent consultant.

•In connection with the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions, we and our employees, including our co-founder and CEO, Vladimir Tenev, have received requests for information, and in some cases, subpoenas and requests for testimony from the USAO, the DOJ, Antitrust Division, the SEC staff, FINRA, the New York Attorney General’s Office, other state attorneys general offices, and a number of state securities regulators. Also, a related search warrant was executed by the USAO to obtain Mr. Tenev’s cell phone. We have also received inquiries from the SEC’s Division of Examinations and Division of Enforcement and FINRA related to employee trading during the week of January 25, 2021 in some of the securities that were subject to the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions, including GameStop Corp. and AMC Entertainment Holdings, Inc., and specifically as to whether any employee trading in these securities occurred after the decision to impose the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions and before the public announcement of the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions on January 28, 2021. We are cooperating with these investigations and examinations.

•In August 2022, we settled an NYDFS investigation under which we paid a monetary penalty of $30 million and engaged an independent compliance consultant.

•In March and April 2023, we reached settlements with several state regulators, including the Alabama Securities Commission, the California Department of Financial Protection and Innovation, the Colorado Division of Securities, the Delaware Department of Justice - Investor Protection Unit, the New Jersey Bureau of Securities, the South Dakota Division of Insurance, and the Texas State Securities Board regarding investigations related to RHF’s options trading and related customer communications and displays, options and margin trading approval process, the March 2020 Outages, and customer support issues prior to June 2020, under which we have agreed to pay a monetary penalty of $200,000 per state. We anticipate potential additional state settlements as part of a multi-state settlement related to these issues totaling up to approximately $10 million.

These and other proceedings, some of which are described in Note 16 - Commitments & Contingencies, to our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report, have in the past and might in the future relate to broker-dealer and financial services rules and regulations, including our trading and supervisory policies and procedures, our clearing practices, our trade reporting, our public communications, our compliance with FINRA registration requirements, anti-money laundering and other financial crimes regulations, cybersecurity matters, and our business continuity plans, among other topics. These sorts of proceedings, inquiries, examinations, investigations, and other regulatory matters might subject us to fines, penalties, and monetary settlements, harm our reputation and brand, require substantial management attention, result in additional compliance requirements, result in certain of our subsidiaries losing their regulatory licenses or ability to conduct business in some jurisdictions (which could, among other things, result in statutory disqualification by FINRA and the SEC), increase regulatory scrutiny of our business, restrict our operations or require us to change our business practices, require changes to our products and services, require changes in personnel or management, delay planned product or service launches or development, limit our ability to acquire other complementary businesses and technologies, or lead to the suspension or expulsion of our broker-dealer or other regulated subsidiaries or their officers or employees.

In connection with litigation settlements, we have in the past and might in the future be required to make expenditures to enhance our compliance activities. For example, in connection with the August 2022 NYDFS settlement, we engaged an independent consultant to perform a comprehensive evaluation of our compliance program and remediation efforts with respect to identified deficiencies and violations. The independent consultant’s evaluation is still ongoing, and resulted in a recommendation to implement enhancements in certain areas identified in the settlement, which require significant effort to implement.

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Additionally, RHS, RHF, RHC, and RHY are registered in the United States but are not currently licensed, authorized, or registered in any other jurisdiction (and in some cases are not licensed in every state). With the exception of Robinhood Wallet, which is offered through RHNC, under the terms of our customer agreements, we currently offer services only to U.S. citizens and permanent residents with a legal address within the United States or Puerto Rico, and our application includes features designed to block access to our services from unauthorized jurisdictions. However, to the extent a customer accesses our application or services outside of jurisdictions where we have obtained required governmental licenses and authorization, we face a risk of becoming subject to regulations in that local jurisdiction. A regulator’s conclusion that we are servicing customers in its jurisdiction without being appropriately licensed, registered, or authorized could result in fines or other enforcement actions.

Recent statements by lawmakers, regulators and other public officials have signaled an increased focus on new or additional regulations that could impact our business and require us to make significant changes to our business model and practices.

Various lawmakers, regulators and other public officials have recently made statements about our business and that of other broker-dealers and signaled an increased focus on new or additional laws or regulations that, if acted upon, could impact our business. Over three days in the spring of 2021, the Committee on Financial Services of the U.S. House of Representatives held hearings on the January 2021 market volatility and disruptions surrounding GameStop and other “meme” stocks at which various members of Congress expressed concerns about various market practices, including PFOF and options trading. In his testimony, Chair Gensler indicated that he had instructed the staff of the SEC to study, and in some cases make rulemaking recommendations to the SEC regarding, a variety of market issues and practices, including PFOF, digital engagement practices, and whether broker-dealers are adequately disclosing their policies and procedures around potential trading restrictions; whether margin requirements and other payment requirements are sufficient; and whether broker-dealers have appropriate tools to manage their liquidity and risk. Chair Gensler also discussed the use of mobile app features such as rewards, bonuses, push notifications and other prompts. Chair Gensler suggested that such prompts could promote behavior that is not in the interest of the customer, such as excessive trading. Chair Gensler also advised that he had directed the SEC staff to consider whether expanded enforcement mechanisms are necessary. In December 2022, the SEC proposed the December 2022 Rule Proposals, which relate to (i) best execution, (ii) order competition, (iii) order execution disclosure, and (iv) order tick size and fee caps. The SEC issued a request for information and public comment on digital engagement practices by broker-dealers and investment advisers in August 2021. In his April 2023 testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Financial Services, Chair Gensler stated that he had asked the SEC staff to make recommendations for rule proposals addressing conflicts that can arise from the use of predictive analytics, in particular conflicts that may arise to the extent advisors or brokers are optimizing their own interests as well as others. On July 26, 2023, the SEC proposed new rules (the “July 2023 Rule Proposals”) that would impose new obligations on registered broker-dealers and investment advisers with respect to their use of certain covered technologies when interacting with investors. If adopted as proposed, the July 2023 Rule Proposals may require us to modify, limit or discontinue our use of certain technologies and product features—and could significantly change the way that we interact with existing and prospective customers—which may adversely impact our business and revenues.

In addition, in 2022, FINRA issued a regulatory notice requesting comment on complex products and options including “whether the current regulatory framework…is appropriately tailored to address current concerns raised by complex products and options.” If FINRA amends its rules to impose additional requirements on firms with respect to determining customer eligibility and/or suitability to trade options, such rule changes could result in fewer Robinhood customers being approved to trade options which could negatively impact our options trading volumes and associated revenues.

Also, in September 2021, FINRA announced that it is reviewing firms’ use of social media marketing, including social media influencers, which is a marketing channel that we actively utilize. In February 2022,

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FINRA opened an investigation into our use of social media marketing. Any limits that FINRA might impose on our use of this marketing channel could make it more difficult for us to attract new customers, resulting in slower growth.

To the extent that the SEC, FINRA, or other regulatory authorities or legislative bodies adopt additional regulations or legislation in respect of any of these areas or relating to any other aspect of our business, we could face a heightened risk of potential regulatory violations and could be required to make significant changes to our business model and practices, which changes might not be successful. Any of these outcomes could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We are involved in numerous litigation matters that are expensive and time consuming, and, if resolved adversely, could expose us to significant liability and reputational harm.

In addition to regulatory proceedings, we are also involved in numerous other litigation matters, including putative class action lawsuits, and we anticipate that we will continue to be a target for litigation in the future. Potential litigation matters include commercial litigation matters, insurance matters, privacy and cybersecurity disputes, intellectual property disputes, contract disputes, consumer protection matters, and employment matters. This risk might be more pronounced during market downturns, during which the volume of legal claims and amount of damages sought in litigation and regulatory proceedings against financial services companies have historically increased.

Litigation matters brought against us have in the past and might in the future require substantial management attention and might result in settlements, awards, injunctions, fines, penalties, and other adverse results. A substantial judgment, settlement, fine, penalty, or injunctive relief could be material to our results of operations or cash flows for a particular period, or could cause us significant reputational harm.

For more information about the legal proceedings in which we are currently involved, see Note 16 - Commitments & Contingencies, to our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report.

We are subject to governmental laws and requirements regarding anti-corruption, anti-bribery, economic and trade sanctions, anti-money laundering, and counter-terror financing that could impair our ability to compete in international markets or subject us to criminal or civil liability if we violate them.

We are required to comply with U.S. economic and trade sanctions administered by OFAC and we have processes in place to facilitate compliance with the OFAC regulations. As part of our customer onboarding process, in accordance with the Customer Identification Program rules under Section 326 of the USA Patriot Act, we screen all potential customers against OFAC watchlists and continue to screen all customers, vendors and employees daily against OFAC watchlists. Although our application includes features designed to block access to our services from sanctioned countries, if our services are accessed from a sanctioned country in violation of trade and economic sanctions, we could be subject to enforcement actions.

We are subject to the FCPA, U.S. domestic bribery laws, and other U.S. and foreign anti-corruption laws. Anti-corruption and anti-bribery laws have been enforced aggressively in recent years and are interpreted broadly to generally prohibit companies, their employees and their third-party intermediaries from authorizing, offering, or providing, directly or indirectly, improper payments or benefits to recipients in the public sector. These laws also require that we keep accurate books and records and maintain internal controls and compliance procedures designed to prevent any such actions. The failure to comply with any such laws could subject us to criminal or civil liability, cause us significant reputational harm, and have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

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We are also subject to various anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing laws and regulations that prohibit, among other things, our involvement in transferring the proceeds of criminal activities. In the United States, most of our services are subject to anti-money laundering laws and regulations, including the Bank Secrecy Act, as amended, and similar laws and regulations. Regulators in the United States continue to increase their scrutiny of compliance with these obligations. For example, in August 2022, we settled an NYDFS investigation of our cryptocurrency business related primarily to anti-money laundering and cybersecurity-related issues, under which we paid a monetary penalty of $30 million and engaged an independent compliance consultant.

Although our operations are currently concentrated in the United States, we intend to continue expanding our operations outside of the United States. As we expand internationally, we will become subject to additional non-U.S. laws, rules, regulations, and other requirements regarding economic and trade sanctions, anti-money laundering, and counter-terror financing. In order to comply with applicable laws, we will need to further revise or expand our compliance program, including the procedures we use to verify the identity of our customers and to monitor transactions on our system, including payments to persons outside of the United States. The need to comply with multiple sets of laws, rules, regulations, and other requirements could substantially increase our compliance costs, impair our ability to compete in international markets, and subject us to risk of criminal or civil liability for violations.

Risks Related to Attracting, Retaining, and Engaging Customers

We operate in highly competitive markets, and many of our competitors have greater resources than we do and may have products and services that are more appealing than ours to our current or potential customers.

The markets in which we compete are evolving and highly competitive, with multiple participants competing for the same customers. Our current and potential future competition principally comes from incumbent brokerages, established financial technology companies, venture-backed financial technology firms, banks, cryptocurrency exchanges, asset management firms, financial institutions, and technology platforms. The majority of our competitors have longer operating histories and greater capital resources than we have and offer a wider range of products and services. Some of our competitors, particularly new and emerging technology companies, are not subject to the same regulatory requirements or scrutiny to which we are subject, which could allow them to innovate more quickly or take more risks, placing us at a competitive disadvantage. The impact of competitors with superior name recognition, greater market acceptance, larger customer bases, or stronger capital positions could adversely affect our results of operations and customer acquisition and retention. Our competitors might also be able to respond more quickly to new or changing opportunities and demands and withstand changing market conditions better than we can, especially larger competitors that might benefit from more diversified product and customer bases. For example, some of our competitors have quickly adopted, or are seeking to adopt, some of our key offerings and services, including commission-free trading, fractional share trading, and no account minimums, since their introduction on our platform in order to compete with us. In addition, competitors might conduct extensive promotional activities, offer better terms or offer differentiating products and services that could attract our current and prospective customers and potentially result in intensified competition within our markets. We continue to experience aggressive price competition in our markets and we might not be able to match the marketing efforts or prices of our competitors. In addition, our competitors might choose to forgo PFOF, which could create downward pressure on PFOF and make it more difficult for us to maintain our PFOF arrangements, which are a significant source of our revenue. We might also be subject to increased competition as our competitors enter into business combinations or partnerships, or established companies in other market segments expand to become competitive with our business.

Our ability to compete successfully in the financial services and cryptocurrency markets depends on a number of factors, including, among other things:

•maintaining competitive pricing;

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•providing easy-to-use, innovative, and attractive products and services that are adopted by customers;

•retaining customers (such as by providing effective customer support and avoiding outages, security breaches, and trading restrictions);

•recruiting and retaining highly skilled personnel and senior management;

•maintaining and improving our reputation and the market perception of our brand and overall value;

•maintaining our relationships with our counterparties; and

•adjusting to a dynamic regulatory environment.

Our competitive position within our markets could be adversely affected if we are unable to adequately address these factors.

If we fail to retain existing customers or attract new customers, or if our customers decrease their use of our products and services, our revenue will decline.

We have experienced significant customer growth in recent years (and in 2020 and 2021 in particular), including a significant fraction of new customers, often more than 50%, who have told us that Robinhood is their first brokerage account. We have historically relied significantly on our customers joining organically or through the Robinhood Referral Program, which accounted for over 80% of the customers that joined our platform in each of 2020, 2021, and 2022. Our business and revenue growth depends on our efforts to attract new customers, retain existing customers, and increase the amount that our customers use our products and services (including premium services, such as Robinhood Gold). It is particularly important that we retain and engage our most active brokerage customers, who account for a disproportionately large percentage of our brokerage trading volumes. Any erosion of this active customer base would have a disproportionately large negative impact on our revenues, which could cause the trading price of our Class A common stock to decline significantly. Our efforts to attract and retain customers might fail due to a number of factors, including our customers losing confidence in us or preferring a competitor’s offerings. Additional factors that could lead to a decline in our number of customers or their usage of our products and services or that could prevent us from increasing our number of customers include:

•a decline in our brand and reputation;

•increased pricing for our products and services;

•ineffective marketing efforts or a reduction in marketing activity;

•certain of our customers, due to being new and inexperienced, might be less loyal to our product or less likely to maintain historical trading patterns and interest in investing;

•a broad decline in the equity or other financial markets, which could result in many of these investors feeling discouraged and exiting the markets altogether (such as the 2022 Bear Markets);

•rising inflation resulting in less disposable income for our customers to invest;

•our customers experiencing difficulties using the Robinhood app as intended, due to any number of reasons such as design errors, service outages, or trading restrictions imposed by us;

•our customers experiencing security or data breaches, account intrusions, or other unauthorized access;

•our failure to provide adequate customer service;

•customer resistance to and non-acceptance of cryptocurrencies; and

•customer dissatisfaction with the limited number of cryptocurrencies available on our platform or with our ceasing support for cryptocurrencies on our platform that the SEC or a court has

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asserted or determined are securities or our proactively removing certain cryptocurrencies from our platform because they share similarities with such cryptocurrencies.

Our customers may choose to cease using our platform, products, and services at any time, and may choose to transfer their accounts to another broker-dealer. For example, during the first quarter of 2021 many customers became upset by our imposition of the Early 2021 Trading Restrictions and we saw an increase in customers choosing to transfer their accounts to other broker-dealers. The total value of outbound ACATS, an automated industry system for account asset transfers, was $4.2 billion in the first quarter of 2021, involving 5.2% of AUC from approximately 206,000 accounts, as compared to outbound transfers of $0.5 billion, involving 1.2% of AUC from approximately 24,000 accounts during each quarter of 2020 on average.

If we fail to provide and monetize new and innovative products and services that are adopted by customers, our business may become less competitive and our revenue might decline.

Our ability to attract, engage, and retain our customers and to increase our revenue depends heavily on our ability to evolve our existing products and services and to create and monetize new products and services that are adopted by customers. Rapid and significant technological changes continue to confront the financial services industry, including developments in the methods in which securities are traded and developments in cryptocurrencies. To keep pace or to innovate we have introduced and might continue to introduce significant changes to our existing products and services or acquire or introduce new and unproven products and services, including using technologies with which we have little or no prior development or operating experience. Our efforts have been and might continue to be inhibited by industry-wide standards, legal restrictions, incompatible customer expectations, demands, and preferences, or third-party intellectual property rights. Our efforts to innovate have been and might continue to also be delayed or blocked by new or enhanced regulatory scrutiny or technical complications. Incorporating new technologies into our products and services has required and might continue to require substantial expenditures and take considerable time, and we might not be successful in realizing a return on these development efforts in a timely manner or at all. It might be difficult to monetize products in a manner consistent with our brand’s focus on low prices. If we fail to innovate and deliver products and services with market fit and differentiation, or fail to do so quickly enough as compared to our competitors, we might fail to attract and retain customers and maintain customer engagement, causing our revenue to decline.

Risks Related to Our Platform, Systems, and Technology

Our products and services rely on software and systems that are highly technical and have been, and may in the future be, subject to interruption, instability, and other potential flaws due to software errors, design defects, and other processing, operational, and technological failures, whether internal or external.

We rely on technology, including the internet and mobile services, to conduct much of our business activity and allow our customers to conduct financial transactions on our platform. Our systems and operations, including our cloud-based operations and disaster recovery operations, as well as those of the third parties on which we rely to conduct certain key functions, are vulnerable to disruptions from natural disasters, power and service outages, interruptions or losses, computer and telecommunications failures, software bugs, cybersecurity attacks, computer viruses, malware, distributed denial of service attacks, spam attacks, phishing or other social engineering, ransomware, security breaches, credential stuffing, technological failure, human error, terrorism, improper operation, unauthorized entry, data loss, intentional bad actions, and other similar events and we have experienced such disruptions in the past. Further, we have in the past and might in the future be particularly vulnerable to any such internal technology failures because we rely heavily on our own self-clearing platform, proprietary order routing system, data platform, and other back-end infrastructure for our operations, and any such failures could

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have an adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition, and results of operations. For example, the Q4 2022 Processing Error, allowed customers, for a limited time, to execute trades selling more shares than they held in their accounts. This caused a temporary short position in that ticker symbol which Robinhood covered out of corporate cash within the same trading day, resulting in a loss of $57 million.

Our products and internal systems also rely on software that is highly technical and complex (including software developed or maintained internally and/or by third parties and also including machine learning models) in order to collect, store, retrieve, transmit, manage and otherwise process immense amounts of data. The software on which we rely might contain errors, bugs, vulnerabilities, design defects, or technical limitations that might compromise our ability to meet our objectives. Some such problems are inherently difficult to detect and some such problems might only be discovered after code has been released for external or internal use. Media outlets have in the past and might in the future learn of our plans for features by examining hidden but unprotected images and code in publicly available beta versions of our app, resulting in unwanted publicity prior to our intended announcement dates. For example, this occurred in September 2021 prior to our launch announcement for our crypto transfers feature (“Crypto Transfers”) and in December 2021 prior to our launch announcement for our Crypto Gifts feature. Such problems might also lead to negative customer experiences (including the communication of inaccurate information to customers), compromised ability of our products to perform in a manner consistent with customer expectations, delayed product introductions, compromised ability to protect data and intellectual property, or an inability to provide some or all of our services.

While we have made, and continue to make, significant investments designed to correct software errors and design defects and to enhance the reliability and scalability of our platform and operations, the risk of software and system failures and design defects is always present, we do not have fully redundant systems, and we might fail to maintain, expand, and upgrade our systems and infrastructure to meet future requirements and mitigate future risks on a timely basis. It might become increasingly difficult to maintain and improve the availability of our platform, especially as our platform and product offerings become more complex and our customer base grows. We might also encounter technical issues in connection with changes and upgrades to the underlying networks of supported cryptocurrencies. Any number of technical changes, software upgrades, soft or hard forks, cybersecurity incidents, or other changes to the underlying blockchain networks might occur from time to time, causing incompatibility, technical issues, disruptions or security weaknesses to our platform. If we are unable to identify, troubleshoot, and resolve any such issues successfully, we might no longer be able to support such cryptocurrency, our customers’ assets might be frozen or lost, the security of our hot or cold wallets might be compromised, and our platform and technical infrastructure might be affected.

In addition, surges in trading volume on our platform have in the past and might in the future cause our systems to operate at diminished speed or even fail, temporarily or for a more prolonged period of time, which would affect our ability to process transactions and potentially result in some customers’ orders being executed at prices they did not anticipate, executed incorrectly, or not executed at all. For example, we experienced (i) the March 2020 Outages, which resulted in some of our customers being unable to buy and sell securities and other financial products on our platform for a period of time, and (ii) partial service outages and degraded service on our cryptocurrency platform from time to time in mid-April and early May 2021 caused by a surging demand for cryptocurrency trading (the “April-May 2021 Disruptions”), which resulted in some of our customers being unable to buy and sell cryptocurrencies for a period of time. Our platform has otherwise in the past and might in the future experience outages. The March 2020 Outages resulted in putative class action lawsuits, arbitrations, and regulatory examinations and investigations. We provided remediation to many of our customers impacted by the March 2020 Outages through cash payments, resulting in out-of-pocket losses to us of approximately $3.6 million. Disruptions to, destruction of, improper access to, breach of, instability of, or failure to effectively maintain our information technology systems (including our data processing systems, self-clearing platform, and order routing system) that allow our customers to use our products and services, and any associated degradations or interruptions of service could result in damage to our reputation, loss of customers, loss of revenue, regulatory or governmental investigations, civil litigation, and liability for damages. In addition, our customer service team from time to time experiences backlogs responding to customer support

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requests. These backlogs have compounded when we have experienced any market outages, provider network disruptions, or platform outages or errors, including, for example, in connection with the March 2020 Outages and the April-May 2021 Disruptions, and may compound in the future as a result of such events. Frequent or persistent interruptions, or perceptions of such interruptions whether true or not, in our products and services could cause customers to believe that our products and services are unreliable, leading them to switch to our competitors or to otherwise avoid our products and services. Additionally, our insurance policies might be insufficient to cover a claim made against us by any such customers affected by any disruptions, outages, or other performance or infrastructure problems.

Our success depends in part upon continued distribution through app stores and effective operation with mobile operating systems, networks, technologies, products, hardware and standards that we do not control.

A substantial majority of our customers’ activity on our platform occurs on mobile devices. We are dependent on the interoperability of our app with popular mobile operating systems, networks, technologies, products, hardware, and standards that we do not control, such as the Android and iOS operating systems. Any changes, bugs or technical issues in such systems, new generations of mobile devices or new versions of operating systems, or changes in our relationships with mobile operating system providers, device manufacturers or mobile carriers, or in their terms of service or policies that degrade the functionality of our app, reduce or eliminate our ability to distribute applications, give preferential treatment to competitive products, limit our ability to target or measure the effectiveness of applications, or impose fees or other charges related to our delivery of our application could adversely affect customer usage of the Robinhood app. For example, from time to time we have experienced delays in our ability to launch products or update features on our platform as a result of prolonged app store review processes. Further, we are subject to the standard policies and terms of service of these operating systems, as well as policies and terms of service of the various application stores that make our application and experiences available to our developers, creators and customers. These policies and terms of service govern the availability, promotion, distribution, content and operation generally of applications and experiences on such operating systems and stores. Each provider of these operating systems and stores has broad discretion to change and interpret its terms of service and policies with respect to our platform and those changes might be unfavorable to us and our customers’ use of our platform. If we were to violate, or an operating system provider or application store believes that we have violated, its terms of service or policies, that operating system provider or application store could limit or discontinue our access to its operating system or store. Any limitation or discontinuation of our access to any third-party platform or application store could adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Additionally, in order to deliver a high-quality mobile experience for our customers, it is important that our products and services work well with a range of mobile technologies, products, systems, networks, hardware and standards that we do not control. We need to continuously modify, enhance, and improve our products and services to keep pace with changes in internet-related hardware, mobile operating systems and other software, communication, browser, and database technologies. We might not be successful in developing products that operate effectively with these technologies, products, systems, networks or standards or in bringing them to market quickly or cost-effectively in response to market demands. If our customers choose to not update our app to the latest version, or if it is otherwise difficult for them to access or use our app on their mobile devices, or if they use mobile products that do not offer access to our app, our customer growth and engagement could be adversely affected and our revenues might decline. In addition, if our customers use older versions of our app it may result in customer complaints and regulatory inquiries that could lead to arbitration claims or regulatory sanctions.

We rely on third parties to perform some key functions, and their failure to perform those functions could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We rely on certain third-party computer systems or third-party service providers, including several cloud technology providers such as Amazon Web Services (on which we primarily rely to deliver our

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services to customers on our platform), internet service providers, payment services providers, market and third-party data providers, regulatory services providers, clearing systems, market makers, exchange systems, banking systems, payment gateways that link us to the payment card and bank clearing networks to process transactions, co-location facilities, communications facilities, and other third-party facilities to run our platform, facilitate trades by our customers, provide the technology we use to manage some of our cryptocurrency custody, transfer, and settlement operations, and support or carry out some regulatory obligations. In addition, external content providers provide us with financial information, market news, charts, option and stock quotes, cryptocurrency quotes, research reports, and other fundamental data that we provide to our customers. These providers are susceptible to processing, operational, technological and security vulnerabilities, including security breaches, which might impact our business, and our ability to monitor our third-party service providers’ data security is limited. In addition, these third-party service providers might rely on subcontractors to provide services to us that face similar risks.

We face a risk that our third-party service providers might be unable or unwilling to continue to provide these services to meet our current needs in an efficient, cost-effective manner or to expand their services to meet our needs in the future. Any failures by our third-party service providers that result in an interruption in service, unauthorized access, misuse, loss or destruction of data or other similar occurrences could interrupt our business, cause us to incur losses, result in decreased customer satisfaction and increase customer attrition, subject us to customer complaints, significant fines, litigation, disputes, claims, regulatory investigations or other inquiries and harm our reputation. Regulators might also hold us responsible for the failures of our providers.

Risks Related to Cybersecurity and Data Privacy

Our business could be materially and adversely affected by a cybersecurity breach or other attack involving our computer systems or data or those of our customers or third-party service providers.

Our systems and those of our customers and third-party service providers have been and might in the future be vulnerable to cybersecurity issues. We, like other financial technology organizations, routinely are subject to cybersecurity threats and our technologies, systems, and networks have been and might in the future be subject to attempted cybersecurity attacks. Such issues are increasing in frequency and evolving in nature, including employee theft or misuse, denial-of-service attacks, and sophisticated nation-state and nation-state-supported actors engaging in attacks. The operation of our platform involves the use, collection, storage, sharing, disclosure, transfer, and other processing of customer information, including personal data. Security breaches and other security incidents could expose us to a risk of loss or exposure of this information, which could result in potential liability, investigations, regulatory fines, penalties for violation of applicable laws or regulations, litigation, and remediation costs, as well as reputational harm. As the breadth and complexity of the technologies we use and the software and platforms we develop continue to grow, the potential risk of security breaches and cybersecurity attacks increases.

Cybersecurity attacks and other malicious internet-based activity continue to increase and financial technology platform providers have been and expect to continue to be targeted. In light of media attention, we might be a particularly attractive target of attacks seeking to access customer data or assets. For example, from January 1, 2020 to October 16, 2020, approximately 2,000 Robinhood customer accounts were allegedly accessed by unauthorized users. We believe these incidents resulted from compromised passwords off of our platform, rather than any failure of our security or systems. Nonetheless, we experienced negative publicity in connection with these events and might in the future experience similar adverse effects relating to real or perceived security incidents, whether or not related to the security of our platform or systems. We have also received customer complaints and been subject to litigation and regulatory inquiries, examinations, enforcement actions, and investigations by various state and federal regulatory bodies, including the SEC, FINRA, and certain state regulators, including the NYDFS and the New York Attorney General, related to these events. The increasing sophistication and resources of cyber criminals and other non-state threat actors and increased actions by nation-state actors make it difficult to keep up with new threats and could result in a breach of security. Additionally,

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there is an increased risk that we might experience cybersecurity-related incidents as a result of any of our employees, service providers, or other third-parties working remotely on less secure systems and environments. While we take significant efforts to protect our systems and data, including establishing internal processes and implementing technological measures designed to provide multiple layers of security, our safety and security measures might be insufficient to prevent damage to, or interruption or breach of, our information systems, data (including personal data), and operations. For example, we experienced the November 2021 Data Security Incident. Based on our investigation and that of a third-party security firm, we believe that the unauthorized party obtained names or email addresses for millions of people, phone numbers for several thousand people, additional personal information for a few hundred people, and extensive account details for about ten people, though we believe no Social Security numbers, bank account numbers, or credit or debit card numbers were exposed and that there has been no financial loss to any customers as a result of the incident.

Furthermore, to the extent the operation of our systems relies on our third-party service providers, through either a connection to, or an integration with, third parties’ systems, the risk of cybersecurity attacks and loss, corruption, or unauthorized access to or publication of our information or the confidential information and personal data of customers and employees might increase. Third-party risks might include insufficient security measures, data location uncertainty, and the possibility of data storage in inappropriate jurisdictions where laws or security measures might be inadequate. Our ability to monitor, and our resources to optimize integration with, third-party service providers’ data security practices are also limited. These third-party risks might be exacerbated as our resources are spread across multiple public cloud service providers. Although we generally have agreements relating to cybersecurity and data privacy in place with our third-party service providers, such agreements might not prevent the accidental or unauthorized access to or disclosure, loss, destruction, disablement or encryption of, use or misuse of, or modification of data (including personal data) and/or might not enable us to obtain adequate (or any) reimbursement from our third-party service providers in the event we should suffer any such incidents. Due to applicable laws and regulations or contractual obligations, we could be held responsible for any information security failure or cybersecurity attack attributed to our vendors as they relate to the information we share with them. A vulnerability in a third-party service provider’s software or systems, a failure of our third-party service providers’ safeguards, policies or procedures, or a breach of a third-party service provider’s software or systems could result in the compromise of the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of our systems or the data housed in our third-party solutions.

For example, in January 2023, unauthorized posts were made on our social media accounts, which were all removed within minutes. Based on a preliminary investigation, we believe the source of the incident was a compromise at a third-party vendor. In addition, in March 2022 a security breach occurred at Okta, an identity authentication provider that we utilize across our employee base. In general, an attacker with forged or compromised Okta service provider credentials could potentially have accessed several of our sensitive internal systems. Okta reports it has now corrected the issue and working with Okta, we have confirmed that such third-party vulnerability was not exploited to gain access to our systems.

A core aspect of our business is the reliability and security of our platform. Any unauthorized access to or disclosure, loss, destruction, disablement or encryption of, use or misuse of or modification of data, including personal data, cybersecurity breach or other security incident that we, our customers or our third-party service providers experience or the perception that one has occurred or might occur, could harm our reputation, reduce the demand for our products and services and disrupt normal business operations. In addition, it might require us to expend significant financial and operational resources in response to a security breach, including repairing system damage, increasing security protection costs by deploying additional personnel and modifying or enhancing our protection technologies, investigating, remediating, or correcting the breach and any security vulnerabilities, defending against and resolving legal and regulatory claims, and preventing future security breaches and incidents, all of which could expose us to uninsured liability, increase our risk of regulatory scrutiny, expose us to legal liabilities, including litigation, regulatory enforcement, indemnity obligations, or damages for contract breach, divert resources and the attention of our management and key personnel away from our business operations, and cause us to incur significant costs, any of which could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations. Moreover, our efforts to improve security and protect data

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from compromise might identify previously undiscovered security breaches. There could be public announcements regarding any security incidents and any steps we take to respond to or remediate such incidents, and if securities analysts or investors perceive these announcements to be negative, it could have an adverse effect on the trading price of our Class A common stock.

We are subject to stringent laws, rules, regulations, policies, industry standards and contractual obligations regarding data privacy and security and might become subject to additional related laws and regulations in jurisdictions into which we expand. Many of these laws and regulations are subject to change and reinterpretation and could result in claims, changes to our business practices, monetary penalties, increased cost of operations, or other harm to our business.

We are subject to a variety of federal, state, local, and non-U.S. laws, directives, rules, policies, industry standards and regulations, as well as contractual obligations, relating to privacy and the collection, protection, use, retention, security, disclosure, transfer and other processing of personal data and other data, including the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999, Section 5(c) of the Federal Trade Commission Act and state laws such as the California Consumer Privacy Act. We will also face particular privacy, data security and data protection risks if we continue to expand into the U.K. and the European Union and other jurisdictions in connection with the General Data Protection Regulation and other data protection regulations. The regulatory framework for data privacy and security worldwide is continuously evolving and developing and, as a result, interpretation and implementation standards and enforcement practices are likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. New laws, amendments to or reinterpretations of existing laws, regulations, standards and other obligations might require us to incur additional costs and restrict our business operations, and might require us to change how we use, collect, store, transfer or otherwise process certain types of personal data, to implement new processes to comply with those laws and our customers’ exercise of their rights thereunder, and could greatly increase the cost of providing our offerings, require significant changes to our operations, or even prevent us from providing some offerings in jurisdictions in which we currently operate and in which we might operate in the future or incur potential liability in an effort to comply with certain legislation. There is a risk of enforcement actions in response to rules and regulations promulgated under the authority of federal agencies and state attorneys general and legislatures and consumer protection agencies. For instance, we have in the past (as discussed in Note 16 - Commitments & Contingencies to our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report) and may in the future be subject to investigations and examinations by the NYDFS regarding, among other things, our cybersecurity practices. In addition, if we fail to follow these security standards, even if no customer information is compromised, we might incur significant fines or experience a significant increase in costs. Following the November 2021 Data Security Incident, we have received requests for information from FINRA examination staff, the SEC Division of Enforcement, and other regulatory authorities regarding, among other things, the adequacy of our information security measures.

Any failure or perceived failure by us or our third-party service providers to cpomply with our posted privacy policies or with any applicable federal, state or similar foreign laws, rules, regulations, industry standards, policies, certifications or orders relating to data privacy and security, or any compromise of security that results in the theft, unauthorized access, acquisition, use, disclosure, or misappropriation of personal data or other customer data, could result in significant awards, fines, civil and/or criminal penalties or judgments, proceedings or litigation by governmental agencies or customers, including class action privacy litigation in certain jurisdictions and negative publicity and reputational harm, one or all of which could have an adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations.

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Risks Related to Our Brokerage Products and Services

If we do not maintain the net capital levels required by regulators, our broker-dealer business may be restricted and we may be fined or subject to other disciplinary or corrective actions.

The SEC, FINRA, and various state regulators have stringent rules or proposed rules with respect to the maintenance of specific levels of net capital by securities broker-dealers. For example, our broker-dealer subsidiaries are each subject to the Net Capital Rule, which specifies minimum capital requirements intended to ensure the general financial soundness and liquidity of broker-dealers, and our clearing and carrying broker-dealer subsidiary is subject to Rule 15c3-3 under the Exchange Act, which requires broker-dealers to maintain liquidity reserves. Our failure to maintain the required net capital levels could result in immediate suspension of securities activities, suspension or expulsion by the SEC or FINRA, restrictions on our ability to expand our existing business or to commence new businesses, and could ultimately lead to the liquidation of our broker-dealer entities and winding down of our broker-dealer business. If such net capital rules are changed or expanded (for instance, the SEC has proposed amendments to Rule 15c3-3 as discussed above), if there is an unusually large charge against net capital, or if we make changes in our business operations that increase our capital requirements, operations that require an intensive use of capital could be limited. A large operating loss or charge against net capital could have adverse effects on our ability to maintain or expand our business.

Our compliance and risk management policies and procedures as a regulated financial services company might not be fully effective in identifying or mitigating compliance and risk exposure in all market environments or against all types of risk.

As a financial services company, our business exposes us to a number of heightened risks. We have devoted significant resources to develop our compliance and risk management policies and procedures and will continue to do so, but our efforts might be insufficient. Our limited operating experience at our current scale, evolving business; and unpredictable periods of rapid growth make it difficult to predict all of the risks and challenges we might encounter and therefore increase the risk that our policies and procedures to identify, monitor and manage compliance risks might not be fully effective in mitigating our exposure in all market environments or against all types of risk. Further, some controls are manual and are subject to inherent limitations and errors in oversight, which could cause our compliance and other risk management strategies to be ineffective. Other compliance and risk management methods depend upon the evaluation of information regarding markets, customers, catastrophe occurrences, or other matters that are publicly available or otherwise accessible to us, which might not always be accurate, complete, up-to-date, or properly evaluated. Insurance and other traditional risk-shifting tools might be held by or available to us in order to manage some exposures, but they are subject to terms such as deductibles, coinsurance, limits, and policy exclusions, as well as risk of counterparty denial of coverage, default, or insolvency. Any failure to maintain effective compliance and other risk management strategies could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We are also exposed to heightened regulatory risk because our business is subject to extensive regulation and oversight in a variety of areas, and such regulations are subject to revision, supplementation, or evolving interpretations and application, and it can be difficult to predict how they might be applied to our business, particularly as we introduce new products and services and expand into new jurisdictions. For example, in December 2022, RHF and RHS received investigative requests from the SEC Division of Enforcement regarding their record keeping and preservation practices, including use of personal devices for brokerage communications.

We are subject to potential losses as a result of our clearing and execution activities.

We provide clearing and execution services for our securities brokerage business. Clearing and execution services include the confirmation, receipt, settlement and delivery functions involved in securities transactions. Clearing brokers also assume direct responsibility for the possession or control of

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customer securities and other assets, the clearing of customer securities transactions and lending money to customers on margin. Self-clearing securities firms are subject to substantially more regulatory control and examination than introducing brokers that rely on others to perform clearing functions. Errors in performing clearing functions, including clerical and other errors related to the handling of funds and securities on behalf of customers, could lead to (i) civil penalties, as well as losses and liability as a result of related lawsuits brought by customers and others and any out-of-pocket costs associated with remediating customers for losses, and (ii) the risk of fines or other actions by regulators. For example, the Q4 2022 Processing Error resulted in a $57 million loss and we have received requests for information from FINRA staff related to this matter. All customers can place limit orders to buy whole shares of certain of the most traded ETFs and individual stocks– 24 hours a day, five days a week, through Robinhood 24 Hour Market. Extending our after-hours coverage has heightened risks related to our clearing and execution activities as we do not have previous experience operating or staffing our systems for around-the-clock coverage and may not be able to accurately anticipate the volume of trading activity that will occur during extended hours.

Our clearing operations also require a commitment of our capital and, despite safeguards implemented through both manual and automated controls, involve risks of losses due to the potential failure of our customers to perform their obligations under these transactions and margin loans. If our customers default on their obligations, including failing to pay for securities purchased, deliver securities sold, or meet margin calls, we remain financially liable for such obligations, and although these obligations are collateralized, we are subject to market risk in the liquidation of customer collateral to satisfy those obligations. While we have established systems and processes designed to manage risks related to our clearing and execution services, we face a risk that such systems and processes might be inadequate. Any liability arising from clearing and margin operations could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

In addition, as a clearing member firm of securities and derivatives clearinghouses in the United States, we are also exposed to clearing member credit risk. Securities and derivatives clearinghouses require member firms to deposit cash, stock and/or government securities for margin requirements and for clearing funds. If a clearing member defaults in its obligations to the clearinghouse in an amount larger than its own margin and clearing fund deposits, the shortfall is absorbed pro rata from the deposits of the other clearing members. Many clearinghouses of which we are members also have the authority to assess their members for additional funds if the clearing fund is depleted. A large clearing member default could result in a substantial cost to us if we are required to pay such assessments. Furthermore, in the event that a significant amount of our customers’ open trades fail to settle, we might be exposed to potential loss of the capital we committed to meet our deposit requirements.

Our exposure to credit risk with customers, market makers, and other counterparties could result in losses.

We extend margin credit and leverage to customers, which are collateralized by customer securities. By permitting customers to purchase securities on margin, we are subject to risks inherent in extending credit, especially during periods of rapidly declining markets (including rapid declines in the trading price of individual securities) in which the value of the collateral held by us could fall below the amount of a customer’s indebtedness. We also lend, and to a lesser degree, borrow securities in connection with our broker-dealer business. In accordance with regulatory guidelines, we hold cash as collateral when we lend securities, and likewise, we collateralize our borrowings of securities by depositing cash with lenders. Sharp changes in market values of substantial amounts of securities in a short period of time and the failure by parties to the lending or borrowing transactions to honor their commitments could result in substantial losses. Such changes could also adversely impact our capital because our clearing operations require a commitment of our capital and, despite safeguards implemented by our software, involve risks

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of losses due to the potential failure of our customers to perform their obligations under these transactions and margin loans.

We are also exposed to credit risk in our dealings with the market makers to which we route cryptocurrency orders. Unlike equities and option trades, cryptocurrency trades do not settle through any central clearinghouses but rather are conducted under bilateral agreements between us and each crypto market maker. (The risk of the market maker's default therefore falls upon us rather than being distributed among a clearinghouse's members.) The terms of these bilateral agreements vary but spot transactions are generally aggregated and settled on a net basis once per business day (with the crypto deliveries occurring first and the net cash moving within 24 hours thereafter) and payment obligations are generally unsecured during the interval between delivery and payment. It is not uncommon for us to have an intra-day outstanding net receivable of $100 million that we are owed by any one cryptocurrency market maker. Similarly, we routinely have unsecured PFOF receivables from equities and options market makers. Any payment default by a market maker could have adverse effects on our financial condition and results of operations.

We have policies and procedures designed to manage credit risk, but we face a risk that such policies and procedures might not be fully effective.

Providing investment recommendations could subject us to investigations, penalties, and liability for customer losses if we fail to comply with applicable regulatory standards, and providing investment education tools could subject us to additional risks if such tools are construed to be investment advice or recommendations.

Risks associated with providing investment recommendations include those arising from how we disclose and address possible conflicts of interest, inadequate due diligence, inadequate disclosure, and human error. New regulations, such as the SEC’s Regulation Best Interest and certain state broker-dealer regulations, impose heightened conduct standards and requirements on recommendations to retail investors. In addition, various states are considering potential regulations or have already adopted certain regulations that could impose additional standards of conduct or other obligations on us to the extent we provide investment advice or recommendations to our customers. The SEC’s July 2023 Rule Proposals, if adopted as proposed, would impose new requirements with respect to our use of a wide range of covered technologies when we are engaging or communicating with existing and prospective customers. If adopted as proposed, the proposals may require us to modify, limit or discontinue our use of certain technologies and product features—and would introduce new regulatory considerations or requirements that would apply to our communications and interactions with existing and prospective customers, including to the extent we provide investment advice or recommendations to them.

We also provide customers with a variety of educational materials, investment tools, and financial news and information, such as our “Robinhood Snacks” newsletter (which is now offered by Sherwood Media, LLC (“Sherwood Media”), our new media subsidiary dedicated to providing news and information about the markets, economics, business, technology, and the culture of money), the suite of other editorial offerings that we expect Sherwood Media to launch throughout this year, and the Robinhood Investment Index. Additionally, Robinhood Gold members have access to stock research reports prepared by our third-party collaborator, Morningstar, Inc. Based on current law and regulations, we believe these services do not constitute investment advice or investment recommendations. If the law were to change or if a court or regulator were to interpret current law and regulations in a novel manner, we face a risk that these services could come to be considered as investment advice.

If services that we do not consider to be recommendations (such as educational materials, and our editorial offerings, including Robinhood Snacks) are construed as constituting investment advice or recommendations, we have been and could be in the future subject to investigations by regulatory agencies. For example, in December 2020, the Enforcement Section of MSD filed a complaint against us alleging that a fiduciary conduct standard applies to us under Massachusetts securities law by claiming that our product features and marketing strategies amount to investment recommendations. See Note 16

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- Commitments & Contingencies, to our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report for more information. Changes in law or changes in interpretations of existing law might also require us to modify the nature of these services or discontinue them altogether, one or more of which could have an adverse effect on our ability to attract and retain customers. .

To the extent our investment education tools, news and information, or digital engagement practices are determined to constitute investment advice or recommendations and to the extent those recommendations fail to satisfy regulatory requirements, or we fail to know our customers, or improperly advise our customers, or if risks associated with advisory services otherwise materialize, we could be found liable for losses suffered by such customers, or could be subject to regulatory fines, penalties, and other actions such as business limitations, any of which could harm our reputation and business.

Risks Related to Cryptocurrency Products and Services

The loss, destruction or unauthorized use or access of a private key required to access any of the cryptocurrencies we hold on behalf of customers could result in irreversible loss of such cryptocurrencies. If we are unable to access the private keys or if we experience a hack or other data loss relating to the cryptocurrencies we hold on behalf of customers, our customers might be unable to trade their cryptocurrency, our reputation and business could be harmed, and we might be liable for losses in excess of our ability to pay.

As we expand our cryptocurrency product and service offerings, the risks associated with failing to safeguard and manage cryptocurrencies we hold on behalf of our customers increase. Our success and the success of our offerings requires significant public confidence in our ability to properly manage customers’ balances and handle large transaction volumes and amounts of customer funds. Any failure by us to maintain the necessary controls or to manage the cryptocurrencies we hold on behalf of our customers and funds appropriately and in compliance with applicable regulatory requirements could result in reputational harm, significant financial losses, lead customers to discontinue or reduce their use of our services, and result in significant penalties and fines and additional restrictions.

We hold all settled cryptocurrencies in custody on behalf of customers in two types of wallets: (i) hot wallets, which are managed online, and (ii) cold wallets, which are managed entirely offline and require physical access controls. We do not utilize third-party custodians for settled cryptocurrencies, but we do utilize technology from a third-party provider to manage some of our cryptocurrency, custody, transfer, and settlement operations. In general, the overwhelming majority of cryptocurrency coins on our platform are held in cold storage, though some coins are held in hot wallets to support day-to-day operations. Under blockchain protocol, in order to access or transfer cryptocurrency stored in a wallet, we need to use a private key. We maintain backup copies of our private keys in multiple separate locations and we have several layers of cybersecurity defense in place to protect our omnibus wallets. However, to the extent any private keys are lost, destroyed, unable to be accessed by us, or otherwise compromised and all of their backups are lost, we will be unable to access the assets held in the related hot or cold wallet. Further, we cannot provide assurance that any or all of our wallets will not be hacked or compromised such that cryptocurrencies are sent to one or more private addresses that we do not control, which could result in the loss of some or all of the cryptocurrencies that we hold in custody on behalf of customers. Any such losses could be significant, and we might not be able to obtain insurance coverage for some or all of those losses. Cryptocurrencies and blockchain technologies have been, and might in the future be, subject to security breaches, hacking, or other malicious activities. For example, in August 2021, hackers were able to momentarily take over the Bitcoin SV (“BSV”) network, allowing them to spend coins they did not have and prevent transactions from completing. Any loss of private keys relating to, or hack or other compromise of, the hot wallets or cold wallets we use to store our customers’ cryptocurrencies could result in total loss of customers’ cryptocurrencies (because customers’ cryptocurrency balances and cryptocurrency investments are not protected by the Securities Investor Protection Corporation (the “SIPC”)) or adversely affect our customers’ ability to sell their assets, and could result in our being

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required to reimburse customers for some or all of their losses, subjecting us to significant financial losses. Our insurance coverage for such events is limited and might not cover the extent of loss nor the nature of such loss, in which case we might be liable for the full amount of losses suffered, which could be greater than all of our remaining assets. The total value of cryptocurrencies under our control on behalf of customers is significantly greater than the total value of insurance coverage that would compensate us in the event of theft or other loss of such assets. Additionally, any such security compromises or any business continuity issues affecting our cryptocurrency market makers might affect the ability or willingness of our customers to trade or hold cryptocurrencies on our platform, might result in litigation and regulatory enforcement actions, and could harm customer trust in us and our products generally.

The prices of most cryptocurrencies are extremely volatile. Fluctuations in the price of various cryptocurrencies might cause uncertainty in the market and could negatively impact trading volumes of cryptocurrencies, which would adversely affect the success of our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The prices of most cryptocurrencies are based in part on market adoption and future expectations, which might or might not be realized. As a result, the prices of cryptocurrencies are highly speculative. The prices of cryptocurrencies have been subject to dramatic fluctuations (including as a result of the 2022 Bear Markets), which have impacted, and will continue to impact, our trading volumes and operating results and might adversely impact our growth strategy and business. Several factors could affect a cryptocurrency’s price, including, but not limited to:

•Global cryptocurrency supply, including various alternative currencies which exist, and global cryptocurrency demand, which can be influenced by the growth or decline of retail merchants’ and commercial businesses’ acceptance of cryptocurrencies as payment for goods and services, the security of online cryptocurrency exchanges and digital wallets that hold cryptocurrencies, the perception that the use and holding of digital currencies is safe and secure, and regulatory restrictions on their use.

•Changes in the software, software requirements or hardware requirements underlying a blockchain network, such as a fork. Forks have occurred and are likely to occur again in the future and could result in a sustained decline in the market price of cryptocurrencies.

•Changes in the rights, obligations, incentives, or rewards for the various participants in a blockchain network.

•The maintenance and development of the software protocol of cryptocurrencies.

•Cryptocurrency exchanges’ deposit and withdrawal policies and practices, liquidity on such exchanges and interruptions in service from or failures of such exchanges. For example, in connection with the 2022 Crypto Bankruptcies, the prices of coins such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Solana significantly decreased.

•Regulatory measures, if any, that affect the use and value of cryptocurrencies or regulatory or judicial assertions or determinations that certain cryptocurrencies are securities.

•Competition for and among various cryptocurrencies that exist and market preferences and expectations with respect to adoption of individual currencies.

•Actual or perceived manipulation of the markets for cryptocurrencies.

•Actual or perceived connections between cryptocurrencies (and related activities such as mining) and adverse environmental effects or illegal activities.

•Social media posts and other public communications by high-profile individuals relating to specific cryptocurrencies, or listing or other business decisions by cryptocurrency companies relating to specific cryptocurrencies.

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•Expectations with respect to the rate of inflation in the economy, monetary policies of governments, trade restrictions, and currency devaluations and revaluations.

While we have observed a positive trend in the total market capitalization of cryptocurrency assets over the long term, driven by increased adoption of cryptocurrency trading by both retail and institutional investors as well as continued growth of various non-investing use cases, historical trends are not indicative of future adoption, and it is possible that the rate of adoption of cryptocurrencies might slow or decline, which would negatively impact our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

While we currently support several cryptocurrencies for trading, market interest in particular cryptocurrencies can also be volatile and there are many cryptocurrencies in the market that we do not support. For example we support trading in Dogecoin and we benefited from a surge in interest for Dogecoin during the second quarter of 2021. For the first, second, and third quarters of 2021, transaction-based revenue attributable to transactions in Dogecoin generated approximately 7%, 32%, and 8% of our total net revenues, respectively. Our business could be adversely affected, and growth in our net revenue earned from cryptocurrency transactions could slow or decline, if the markets for the cryptocurrencies we support deteriorate or if demand moves to other cryptocurrencies not supported by our platform. The listing committee of Robinhood Crypto conducts regular reviews of the cryptocurrencies available on our platform and possesses the authority to delist and cease support for any asset based on various factors. Ceasing support for a cryptocurrency with substantial market interest (or if our consideration to cease supporting such a cryptocurrency becomes known) has in the past exposed, and may continue to expose us to negative attention, adversely impacting our business, including revenue loss from no longer supporting a cryptocurrency or customer reaction to such a decision. For instance, in the past we have encountered an influx of customer complaints related to our decisions to cease support for certain cryptocurrencies.

Volatility in the values of cryptocurrencies caused by the factors described above or other factors might impact our regulatory net worth requirements as well as the demand for our services and therefore have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Any particular cryptocurrency’s status as a “security” is subject to a high degree of uncertainty and if we have not properly characterized one or more cryptocurrencies, we might be subject to regulatory scrutiny, investigations, fines, and other penalties.

We currently facilitate customer trades for certain cryptocurrencies that we have analyzed under applicable internal policies and procedures and that we believe are not securities under U.S. federal and state securities laws. The legal test for determining whether any given cryptocurrency is a security is a highly complex, fact-driven analysis that evolves over time, and the outcome is difficult to predict. The SEC staff has indicated that the determination of whether or not a cryptocurrency is a security depends on the characteristics and use of that particular asset. The SEC generally does not provide advance guidance or confirmation on the status of any particular cryptocurrency as a security. Occasionally, though the SEC and its staff have taken positions that certain cryptocurrencies are “securities” – often in the context of enforcement actions – and we do not currently support any cryptocurrencies for which the SEC or its staff has taken such a position. While prior public statements by senior officials at the SEC indicated that the SEC does not intend to take the position that Bitcoin or Ethereum are securities (in their current forms), Bitcoin and Ethereum were the only specific cryptocurrencies as to which senior officials at the SEC had publicly expressed such a view. However, Chair Gensler was quoted in a February 2023 interview as saying “[e]verything other than Bitcoin” when discussing the SEC’s purview with respect to cryptocurrency and in April 2023 declined to provide his view when asked if he considered Ethereum to be a security during his testimony to the U.S. House of Representatives Financial Services Committee. Moreover, such statements are not official policy statements by the SEC and reflect only the speakers’ views, which are not binding on the SEC or any other agency or court, cannot be generalized to any other cryptocurrency and might evolve. Similarly, although the SEC’s Strategic Hub for Innovation and Financial Technology published a framework for analyzing whether any given cryptocurrency is a security in April 2019, this framework is also not a rule, regulation, or statement of the SEC and is not binding on the

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SEC. With respect to all other cryptocurrencies, there is currently no certainty under the applicable legal test that such assets are not securities, and regulators have expressed concerns about cryptocurrency platforms adding multiple new coins, some of which the regulators question might be unregistered securities. In September 2022, Chair Gensler stated in a speech that he believes a vast majority of the nearly 10,000 tokens in the crypto market are securities and reiterated this statement in his September 2022 testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs and April 2023 testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Financial Services. Although our policies and procedures are intended to enable us to make risk-based assessments regarding the likelihood that a particular cryptocurrency could be deemed a security under applicable laws, including federal securities laws, our assessments are not definitive legal determinations as to whether a particular digital asset is a security under such laws. Accordingly, regardless of our conclusions, we could be subject to legal or regulatory action in the event the SEC or a court were to assert or determine that a cryptocurrency supported by our platform is a “security” under U.S. law. In July 2022, the SEC filed an insider trading case against, among others, an employee of one of our competitors in which the complaint alleged that certain cryptocurrencies (none of which we currently support) were securities under the Securities Act and the Exchange Act. Additionally, in June 2023, the SEC charged Binance Holdings Ltd., and its affiliated U.S. entity, among others (collectively, “Binance”) and, separately, Coinbase Global, Inc., and Coinbase, Inc. (collectively, “Coinbase”) (collectively, the “Coinbase and Binance Charges”) with operating their respective cryptocurrency trading platforms as unregistered national securities exchanges, brokers, and clearing agencies, also alleging that certain cryptocurrencies supported on their respective platforms are securities, including Cardano, Polygon, and Solana, which were supported on our platform. The charges also implicated Coinbase’s staking-as-a-service program and its non-custodial wallet. Although we have since ceased support for Cardano, Polygon, and Solana, we do offer the Robinhood Wallet, which is a self-custodial crypto wallet. The outcome of these matters provides, and any other action, settlement, or related investigation by regulators, might provide, additional guidance on the legal status of cryptocurrencies as securities more generally, which has affected and might significantly affect the actual or perceived regulatory status and value of cryptocurrencies we currently support or might support in the future. From time to time, we also have received, and might in the future receive SEC inquiries regarding specific cryptocurrencies supported on our platform and added features and since December 2022, following the 2022 Crypto Bankruptcies, we have received investigative subpoenas from the SEC regarding, among other topics, RHC’s supported cryptocurrencies, custody of cryptocurrencies, and platform operations.

To the extent that the SEC or a court asserts or determines that any cryptocurrencies supported by our platform are securities, that assertion or determination could prevent us from continuing to facilitate trading of those cryptocurrencies (including ceasing support for such cryptocurrencies on our platform). It could also result in regulatory enforcement penalties and financial losses in the event that we have liability to our customers and need to compensate them for any losses or damages. We could be subject to judicial or administrative sanctions for failing to offer or sell the cryptocurrency in compliance with securities registration requirements, or for acting as a securities broker or dealer without appropriate registration. Such an action could result in injunctions and cease and desist orders, as well as civil monetary penalties, fines, and disgorgement, criminal liability, and reputational harm. Customers that traded such supported cryptocurrency through our platform and suffered trading losses might also seek to rescind transactions that we facilitated on the basis that they were conducted in violation of applicable law, which could subject us to significant liability and losses. We might also be required to cease facilitating transactions in the supported cryptocurrency, which could negatively impact our business, operating results, and financial condition. Further, if Bitcoin, Ethereum, or any other supported cryptocurrency is deemed to be a security, it might have adverse consequences for such supported cryptocurrency. For instance, all transactions in such supported cryptocurrency would have to be registered with the SEC or other foreign authority, or conducted in accordance with an exemption from registration, which could severely limit its liquidity, usability, and transactability. Moreover, the networks on which such supported cryptocurrencies are used might be required to be regulated as securities intermediaries, and subject to applicable rules, which could effectively render the network impracticable for its existing purposes. In particular, Chair Gensler noted in his April 2023 testimony that “Given that most crypto tokens are securities, it follows that many crypto intermediaries are transacting in securities and have to register with the SEC” and that crypto investors should benefit from compliance with the securities laws. In April 2023, the SEC also reopened the comment period and provided supplemental

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information on proposed amendments to the definition of “exchange” under Exchange Act Rule 3b-16, including reiterating the applicability of existing rules to platforms that trade crypto asset securities. Additionally, any determination that Bitcoin or Ethereum is a security could draw negative publicity and cause a decline in the general acceptance of cryptocurrencies. Also, it would make it more difficult for Bitcoin or Ethereum, as applicable, to be traded, cleared, and custodied as compared to other cryptocurrencies that are not considered to be securities. In addition, our growth might be adversely affected if we are not able to expand our platform to include additional cryptocurrencies that the SEC has determined to be securities or that we believe are likely to be determined to be securities.

We continue to analyze the cryptocurrencies supported on our platform under our internal policies and procedures (collectively, our “Crypto Listing Framework”) on a periodic basis to ensure that they continue to meet our requirements for continued support on our platform which include, among other factors, that we continue to believe they are not securities under U.S. federal and state securities laws. We may make the determination to cease support for a cryptocurrency for any one or a variety of factors based on a totality of the circumstances under our Crypto Listing Framework. However, an assertion or determination by the SEC or a court that a cryptocurrency supported by our platform constitutes a security could also result in our determination that it is advisable to remove that and other cryptocurrencies from our platform that have similar characteristics to the cryptocurrency that was asserted or determined to be a security. If we proactively remove certain cryptocurrencies from our platform because the SEC or a court has asserted or determined they constitute securities or because they share similarities with such cryptocurrencies or otherwise do not meet our Crypto Listing Framework, it has (for instance, with respect to Cardano, Polygon, and Solana) and could in the future negatively impact customer sentiment and our business, operating results, and financial condition, especially to the extent that our competitors continue to support such cryptocurrency on their platforms.

Cryptocurrency laws, regulations, and accounting standards are often difficult to interpret and are rapidly evolving in ways that are difficult to predict. Changes in these laws and regulations, or our failure to comply with them, could negatively impact cryptocurrency trading on our platform.

Domestic and foreign regulators and governments are increasingly focused on the regulation of cryptocurrencies. In the United States, cryptocurrencies are regulated by both federal and state authorities, depending on the context of their usage. Cryptocurrency market disruptions and resulting governmental interventions are unpredictable, and might make cryptocurrencies, or certain cryptocurrency business activities, illegal altogether. As regulation of cryptocurrencies continues to evolve, there is a substantial risk of inconsistent regulatory guidance among federal and state agencies and among state governments which, along with potential accounting and tax issues or other requirements relating to cryptocurrencies, could impede the growth of our cryptocurrency operations. Additionally, regulation in response to the climate impact of cryptocurrency mining could negatively impact cryptocurrency trading on our platform.

The cryptocurrency accounting rules and regulations that we must comply with are complex and subject to interpretation by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”), the SEC, and various bodies formed to promulgate and interpret accounting principles. A change in these rules and regulations or interpretations could have a significant effect on our reported financial results and financial position, and could even affect the reporting of transactions completed before the announcement or effectiveness of a change. Further, there are a limited number of precedents for the financial accounting treatment of cryptocurrency assets (including related issues of valuation and revenue recognition), and no official guidance has been provided by the FASB or the SEC. Accordingly, there remains significant uncertainty as to the appropriate accounting for cryptocurrency asset transactions, cryptocurrency assets, and related revenues. Uncertainties in or changes in regulatory or financial accounting standards could result in the need to change our accounting methods and/or restate our financial statements, and could impair our ability to provide timely and accurate financial information, which could adversely affect our financial statements, and result in a loss of investor confidence.

In addition, future regulatory actions or policies, including, for instance, the assertion of jurisdiction by domestic and foreign regulators and governments over cryptocurrency and cryptocurrency markets could

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limit or restrict cryptocurrency usage, custody, or trading, or the ability to convert cryptocurrencies to fiat currencies. For example, Chair Gensler remarked several times in 2021 and 2022 on the need for further regulatory oversight of crypto trading and crypto lending platforms. Additionally in February 2023, the SEC issued a new rule proposal (the “February 2023 Custody Rule Proposal”) related to the custody of client assets by registered investment advisers, which, if adopted as proposed, would expand the existing custody rules to apply to a broad range of assets, including cryptocurrencies, and would require that any client assets be maintained by a qualified custodian. In connection with the announcement of the February 2023 Custody Rule Proposal, Chair Gensler noted that “Based upon how crypto platforms generally operate, investment advisers cannot rely on them as qualified custodians.” If the February 2023 Custody Rule Proposal is adopted as proposed, and we are not deemed to be a “qualified custodian,” we may be required to cease our custodial crypto offerings under certain circumstances, which would have a material adverse impact on our business and one of our primary sources of revenue. Some lawmakers and regulators have also raised questions about Transaction Rebates from cryptocurrency trading. Transaction Rebates from cryptocurrency trading have historically, and might continue, to comprise a significant percentage of our total net revenues. Any future regulatory actions or policies could reduce the demand for cryptocurrency trading and might materially decrease our revenue derived from Transaction Rebates in absolute terms and as a proportion of our total revenues.

In March 2022, the SEC staff issued SAB 121 requiring crypto platforms to recognize a liability and a corresponding asset equal to the fair value of the crypto-assets the entity safeguards on behalf of users. Such accounting treatment enhances the information received by investors regarding potential liabilities upon theft or loss of crypto-assets. But such treatment has also caused some users to question how safeguarded crypto-assets would be treated in a platform bankruptcy. We implemented SAB 121 for the quarter ended June 30, 2022, with retrospective application to the beginning of 2022. As a result of (and solely by virtue of) our implementation of SAB 121, the cryptocurrency we custody for users now appears on our balance sheet as an asset. In January 2023, the Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York issued a ruling in In re Celsius Network LLC, that certain crypto assets held by Celsius customer accounts were the property of Celsius’s estate and that the holders of such accounts are unsecured creditors. However, unlike the terms of our user agreement, the terms of Celsius’s user agreement unambiguously provided that the rights to cryptocurrency held, including ownership rights, belonged to Celsius. Based on the terms of our user agreement, the structure of our crypto offerings, and applicable law, we believe that the cryptocurrency we hold in custody for users of our platform should be respected as users’ property (and should not be available to satisfy the claims of our general creditors) in the event we were to enter bankruptcy. Although we are well-capitalized, to the extent users are concerned that crypto-assets might not be secure in a platform bankruptcy generally, their willingness to hold crypto in custodial accounts and their general interest in trading cryptocurrencies might decline.

Furthermore, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act significantly changes the tax reporting requirements applicable to brokers and holders of cryptocurrency and digital assets. New U.S. reporting requirements that were to be effective for information returns filed in 2024 regarding transactions occurring in calendar year 2023 have been delayed until final regulations are issued by the Treasury Department. The implementation of these requirements, and any further legislative changes or related guidance from the Internal Revenue Service, might significantly impact our tax reporting and withholding processes and result in increased compliance costs. Failure to comply with these new information reporting and withholding requirements might subject us to significant tax liabilities and penalties. Similarly, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has published final guidance on a new “crypto-asset reporting framework” and amendments to the existing rules for reporting crypto assets under the global “common reporting standard” that might apply to our international operations. These new rules might give rise to potential liabilities or disclosure requirements, and implementation of these requirements might significantly impact our operations and result in increased costs.

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Our Crypto Transfers, Robinhood Wallet, and Robinhood Connect features, could result in loss of customer assets, customer disputes, and other liabilities, which could harm our reputation and adversely impact trading volumes and transaction-based revenues.

We allow customers to deposit and withdraw cryptocurrencies to and from our platform through our Crypto Transfers feature in the states in which RHC operates (other than New York, where our regulatory application is still pending). Crypto Transfers are processed using Robinhood’s general custodial infrastructure in which we hold some cryptocurrencies on behalf of customers; when transactions are completed, coins are allocated to and from individuals’ accounts in our customer records. Additionally, as of April 27, 2023, customers have access to a fiat-to-crypto on-ramp tool that developers can embed directly into their decentralized applications (“Robinhood Connect”), allowing their customers to use their RHC accounts to buy and transfer crypto, and fund their self-custody wallets.

Crypto Transfers initiated by users are subject to a heightened risk of user error. Under blockchain protocol, recording a transfer of cryptocurrency on the blockchain involves both the private key of the sending wallet and the unique public key of the receiving wallet. Such keys are strings of alphanumeric characters. In order for a customer to receive cryptocurrency on our platform, the customer will need to arrange for the owner of an external source wallet to “sign” a transaction with the private key of that external wallet, directing a transfer of the cryptocurrency to our receiving custodial wallet by inputting the public key (which we will provide to the customer) of our custodial wallet. Similarly, in order to withdraw cryptocurrency from our platform, the customer will need to provide us with the public key of the external wallet to which the cryptocurrency is to be transferred, and we will “sign” the transaction using the private key of our wallet. Some crypto networks might require additional information to be provided in connection with any transfer of cryptocurrency to or from our platform. A number of errors could occur in the process of depositing or withdrawing cryptocurrencies to or from our platform, such as typos, mistakes, or the failure to include information required by the blockchain network. For instance, a user might include typos when entering our custodial wallet’s public key or the desired recipient’s public key when depositing to and withdrawing from our platform, respectively. Alternatively, a user could mistakenly transfer cryptocurrencies to a wallet address that he or she does not own or control, or for which the user has lost the private key. In addition, each wallet address is compatible only with the underlying blockchain network on which it is created. For instance, a Bitcoin wallet address can be used to send and receive Bitcoin only. If any Ethereum, Dogecoin, or other cryptocurrency is sent to a Bitcoin wallet address, for example, or if any of the other foregoing errors occur, such cryptocurrencies could be permanently and irretrievably lost with no means of recovery.

With Robinhood Wallet, our self-custody, web3 wallet, customers have sole access and control over their cryptocurrencies on the Polygon and Ethereum networks and personally hold and maintain their private keys. Although we do not custody cryptocurrencies held in a customer’s Robinhood Wallet and do not have access to customers’ private keys, customers who lose their private keys, and thus access to their Robinhood Wallet accounts, may react negatively. Although our account agreements for Crypto Transfers and Robinhood Wallet disclaims responsibility for losses caused by customer errors, such incidents could result in customer disputes, damage to our brand and reputation, legal claims against us, and financial liabilities.

Additionally, allowing customers to deposit and withdraw cryptocurrencies to and from our platform increases the risk that our platform might be exploited to facilitate illegal activity such as fraud, gambling, money laundering, tax evasion, and scams. Crypto Transfers, Robinhood Wallet, and Robinhood Connect also expose us to heightened risks related to potential violations of trade sanctions, including OFAC regulations, and anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing laws, which among other things impose strict liability for transacting with prohibited persons. We engage blockchain analytics vendors to help determine whether the external wallets involved in Crypto Transfers are controlled by persons on prohibited lists or involved in fraudulent or illegal activity. However, fraudulent and illegal transactions and prohibited status could be difficult or impossible for us and our vendors to detect in some circumstances.

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The use of our platform for illegal or improper purposes could subject us to claims, individual and class action lawsuits, and government and regulatory investigations, prosecutions, enforcement actions, inquiries, or requests that could result in significant liabilities and reputational harm for us and could cause cryptocurrency trading volumes and transaction-based revenues to decline.

A temporary or permanent blockchain “fork” could adversely affect our business.

Most blockchain protocols, including Bitcoin and Ethereum, are open source. Any user can download the software, modify it and then propose that users and miners of Bitcoin, Ethereum or other blockchain protocols adopt the modification. When a modification is introduced and a substantial majority of miners consent to the modification, the change is implemented and the Bitcoin, Ethereum or other blockchain protocol networks, as applicable, remain uninterrupted, although such modifications might cause certain cryptocurrencies to fail our Crypto Listing Framework. However, if less than a substantial majority of users and miners consent to the proposed modification, and the modification is not compatible with the software prior to its modification, the consequence would be what is known as a “fork” (i.e., “split”) of impacted blockchain protocol network and respective blockchain with one prong running the pre-modified software and the other running the modified software. The effect of such a fork would be the existence of two versions of the Bitcoin, Ethereum or other blockchain protocol network, as applicable, running simultaneously, but with each split network’s cryptocurrency lacking interchangeability.

Both Bitcoin and Ethereum protocols have been subject to “forks” that resulted in the creation of new networks, including, among others, Bitcoin Cash, BSV, Bitcoin Diamond, Bitcoin Gold, Ethereum Classic, and Ethereum Proof-of-Work. Some of these forks have caused fragmentation among platforms as to the correct naming convention for forked cryptocurrencies. Due to the lack of a central registry or rulemaking body in the cryptocurrency market, no single entity has the ability to dictate the nomenclature of forked cryptocurrencies, causing disagreements and a lack of uniformity among platforms on the nomenclature of forked cryptocurrencies, and which results in further confusion to customers as to the nature of cryptocurrencies they hold on platforms. In addition, several of these forks were contentious and as a result, participants in certain communities might harbor ill will towards other communities. As a result, certain community members might take actions that adversely impact the use, adoption and price of Bitcoin, Ethereum or any of their forked alternatives.

Furthermore, forks can lead to disruptions of networks and our information technology systems, cybersecurity attacks, replay attacks, or security weaknesses, any of which can further lead to temporary or even permanent loss of customer cryptocurrencies. For instance, when the Ethereum and Ethereum Classic networks split in July 2016, replay attacks, in which transactions from one network were rebroadcast on the other network to achieve “double-spending,” plagued platforms that traded Ethereum through at least October 2016, resulting in significant losses to some cryptocurrency platforms. Another possible result of a fork is an inherent decrease in the level of security due to the splitting of some mining power across networks, making it easier for a malicious actor to exceed 50% of the mining power of that network. Such disruption and loss could cause our company to be exposed to liability, even in circumstances where we have no intention of supporting a cryptocurrency compromised by a fork.

Moreover, we might decide not to or not be able to support a cryptocurrency resulting from the fork of a network which might cause our customers to lose confidence in us or reduce their engagement on our platform. In assessing whether we will support a cryptocurrency resulting from the fork of a network, among our top priorities is to safeguard our customer’s assets, and we spend extensive time designing, building, testing, reviewing and auditing our systems to check whether the cryptocurrencies we support remain safe and secure. There are several considerations that we consider as part of our Crypto Listing Framework (including security or infrastructure concerns that might arise with the integration of any new cryptocurrency into the technical infrastructure that allows us to secure customer cryptocurrencies and to transact securely in corresponding blockchains), which might operate to limit our ability to support forks. Further, we generally do not support a forked cryptocurrency that does not have support from a majority of the affiliated third-party miner and developer community. To the extent that we decide not to support, or to cease support of, certain forked cryptocurrencies, it could negatively impact customer sentiment and

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our business, operating results, and financial condition, especially to the extent that our competitors continue to support such forked cryptocurrencies on their platforms.

Whether we are obligated to provide services for a new and previously unsupported cryptocurrency is a question of contract, as recognized in recent published rulings of the California appellate courts and federal district courts. The user agreement each customer enters into in order to trade cryptocurrencies on our platform clearly indicates that we have the sole discretion to determine whether we will support a forked network and the approach to such forked cryptocurrencies and that we may temporarily suspend trading for a cryptocurrency whose network is undergoing a fork without advanced notice to the customer. Regardless of the foregoing, we might in the future be subject to claims by customers arguing that they are entitled to receive certain forked cryptocurrencies by virtue of cryptocurrencies that they hold with us. If any customers succeed on a claim that they are entitled to receive the benefits of a forked cryptocurrency that we do not or are unable to support, we might be required to pay significant damages, fines or other fees to compensate customers for their losses.

Any inability to maintain adequate relationships with third-party banks, market makers, and liquidity providers with respect to, and any inability to settle customer trades related to, our cryptocurrency offerings would disrupt our ability to offer cryptocurrency trading to customers.

We rely on third-party banks, market makers, and liquidity providers to provide cryptocurrency products and services to our customers. The cryptocurrency market operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The cryptocurrency market does not have a centralized clearinghouse, and the transactions in cryptocurrencies on our platform rely on direct settlements between us and our customers and direct settlements between us and our market makers or liquidity providers after customer trades are executed. Accordingly, we rely on third-party banks to facilitate cash settlements with customers’ brokerage accounts and we rely on the ability of market makers and liquidity providers to complete cryptocurrency settlements with us to obtain cryptocurrency for customer accounts. In addition, we must maintain cash assets in our bank accounts sufficient to meet the working capital needs of our business, which includes deploying available working capital to facilitate cash settlements with our customers, market makers, and liquidity providers (as well as maintaining the minimum capital required by regulators). If we, third-party banks, market makers, or liquidity providers have operational failures and cannot perform and facilitate our routine cash and cryptocurrency settlement transactions, we will be unable to support normal trading operations on our cryptocurrency trading platform and these disruptions could have an adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations. Similarly, if we fail to maintain cash assets in our bank accounts sufficient to meet the working capital needs of our business and necessary to complete routine cash settlements related to customer trading activity, such failure could impair our ability to support normal trading operations on our cryptocurrency platform, which could cause cryptocurrency trading volumes and transaction-based revenues to decline significantly.

We might also be harmed by the loss of any of our banking partners and market makers. As a result of the many regulations applicable to cryptocurrencies or the risks of cryptocurrencies generally, many financial institutions have decided, and other financial institutions might in the future decide, not to provide bank accounts (or access to bank accounts), payments services, or other financial services to companies providing cryptocurrency products, including us. For instance, in May 2023, two prominent market makers announced their respective decisions to limit their offerings in cryptocurrency trading within the United States. If we or our market makers cannot maintain sufficient relationships with the banks that provide these services, if banking regulators restrict or prohibit banking of cryptocurrency businesses, if these banks impose significant operational restrictions, or if these banks were to fail or be taken over by the FDIC, such as occurred in the 2023 Banking Events, it could be difficult for us to find alternative business partners for our cryptocurrency offerings, which would disrupt our business and could cause cryptocurrency trading volumes and transaction-based revenues to decline significantly.

We might also be harmed by the loss of any of our liquidity partners. Unlike our customers’ orders for other cryptocurrencies, which are currently fulfilled by market makers, our customers’ orders for USD coin (“USDC”), a stablecoin backed by dollar denominated assets held by the issuer in segregated accounts

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with U.S. regulated financial institutions, are fulfilled directly from Circle Internet Financial, LLC (“Circle”), the original issuer and main liquidity provider of USDC. If in the future we decide to offer other stablecoins, which are cryptocurrencies designed to minimize price volatility, we may also work directly with other liquidity partners to fulfill those orders. If we cannot maintain sufficient relationships with Circle or any other liquidity providers, it could be difficult for us to find alternative liquidity partners for our stablecoin offerings, which would disrupt our business and could cause cryptocurrency trading volumes and transaction-based revenues to decline significantly.

From time to time, we might encounter technical issues in connection with changes and upgrades to the underlying networks of supported cryptocurrencies, which could cause revenues to decline and expose us to potential liability for customer losses.

Any number of technical changes, software upgrades, soft or hard forks, cybersecurity incidents or other changes to the underlying blockchain networks might occur from time to time, causing incompatibility, technical issues, disruptions or security weaknesses to our platform. If we are unable to identify, troubleshoot and resolve any such issues successfully, we might no longer be able to support such cryptocurrency, our customers’ assets might be frozen or lost, the security of our hot or cold wallets might be compromised and our platform and technical infrastructure might be affected, all of which could cause trading volumes and transaction-based revenue to decline and expose us to potential liability for customer losses.

Risks Related to Our Payments Products and Services

Our payments products and services subject us to risks related to bank partnerships, FDIC pass-through insurance and other regulatory obligations.

We offer spending accounts (in connection with a partnership with J.P. Morgan Chase Bank, N.A.), and we have also partnered, on a non-exclusive basis, with Sutton Bank (“Sutton”), an Ohio-chartered bank, pursuant to a license from Mastercard International Incorporated, to offer the Robinhood Cash Card. Under the terms of our program agreement with Sutton, Robinhood Cash Card accounts for our users are opened and maintained by Sutton. We act as the service provider to, among other things, facilitate communication between our users and Sutton for which we receive compensation from Sutton. Additionally, the X1 Card is issued by Coastal Community Bank (“Coastal”), a Washington-chartered bank, pursuant to a partnership with Visa U.S.A. Inc. Our partner banks are members of the FDIC.

We believe our record keeping for our users’ funds held in Robinhood Cash Card accounts at Sutton and held in spending accounts at our other partner bank complies with all applicable requirements for each participating user’s deposits to be eligible for FDIC insurance coverage, up to the applicable maximum deposit insurance amount. However, if the FDIC were to disagree, the FDIC might not recognize users’ claims as covered by deposit insurance in the event of bank failure and bank receivership proceedings under the Federal Deposit Insurance Act. If the FDIC were to determine that our users’ funds held at our partner banks are not covered by deposit insurance, participating users might decide to withdraw their funds, which could adversely affect our brand and our business. Due to the fact that we are deemed a service-provider to our partner banks, we are subject to audit standards for third-party vendors in accordance with bank regulatory guidance and examinations by federal bank regulatory authorities and the CFPB.

As a result of the stored value spending account program and the Robinhood Cash Card, we are subject to federal and state consumer protection laws and regulations, including the Electronic Fund Transfer Act and Regulation E as implemented by the CFPB. As a result of the X1 Card, we are also subject to payment card association operating rules, including data security rules and certification requirements, which could change or be reinterpreted to make it difficult or impossible for us to comply. Failure to comply with these rules or requirements, as well as any breach, compromise, or failure to

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otherwise detect or prevent fraudulent activity involving our data security systems, could result in our being liable for card issuing banks’ costs, and subject to fines and higher transaction fees. Violations of any of these requirements could result in the assessment of significant actual damages or statutory damages or penalties (including treble damages in some instances) and plaintiffs’ attorneys’ fees.

Offering the X1 Card increases our exposure to customer defaults and credit risk and could result in losses.

We market consumer credit cards originated by our partner bank, Coastal, pursuant to our program agreement (the “X1 Card Program”) and indemnify Coastal for certain losses on the X1 Card Program. The revenue generated from the X1 Card Program, as well as the extent of credit losses incurred, depends in part on Coastal’s ability to manage credit risk while attracting new customers with profitable usage patterns. Coastal, in conjunction with X1, selects customers, manages accounts and establishes terms and credit limits using proprietary scoring models and other analytical techniques that are designed to set terms and credit limits to appropriately compensate for credit risk, while encouraging customers to use their available credit. The models and approaches that Coastal uses to manage credit risk may not accurately predict future charge-offs. Coastal’s ability to manage credit risk and our ability, as servicer, to avoid high charge-off rates also may be adversely affected by general economic conditions including unemployment, the availability of consumer credit and the competitive environment, as well as events that may be difficult to predict, such as a general downturn in economic conditions (like the one that occurred in 2022) or public health threats (like the COVID-19 pandemic). A material increase in credit losses and defaults could have adverse effects on our financial condition and results of operations.

Use of our payments services for illegal activities or improper purposes could harm our business.

The highly automated nature of, and liquidity offered by, our payments services to move money make us and our customers a target for illegal or improper uses, including scams and fraud directed at our stored value account, Robinhood Cash Card, and X1 Card customers, money laundering, terrorist financing, sanctions evasion, illegal online gambling, fraudulent sales of goods or services, illegal telemarketing activities, illegal sales of prescription medications or controlled substances, piracy of software, movies, music, and other copyrighted or trademarked goods (in particular, digital goods), bank fraud, child pornography, human trafficking, prohibited sales of alcoholic beverages or tobacco products, securities fraud, pyramid or ponzi schemes, or the facilitation of other illegal or improper activity. Moreover, certain activity that is legal in one jurisdiction might be illegal in another jurisdiction, and a customer might be found responsible for intentionally or inadvertently importing or exporting illegal goods, resulting in liability for us. Owners of intellectual property rights or government authorities might seek to bring legal action against providers of payments solutions, including Robinhood, that are peripherally involved in the sale of infringing or allegedly infringing items. While we invest in measures intended to prevent and detect illegal activities on our payments platform, these measures require continuous improvement and might not be effective in detecting and preventing illegal activity or improper uses.

Any illegal or improper uses of our payments platform by our users might subject us to claims, individual and class action lawsuits, and government and regulatory requests, inquiries, or investigations that could result in liability, restrict our operations, require us to change our business practices, harm our reputation, increase our costs, and negatively impact our business. For example, government enforcement or regulatory authorities could seek to impose additional restrictions or liability on us arising from the use of our payments platform for illegal or improper activity, and our failure to detect or prevent such use. Illegitimate transactions can also prevent us from satisfying our contractual obligations to our third-party partners, which might cause us to be in breach of our obligations.

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Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

Any failure to obtain, maintain, protect, defend or enforce our intellectual property rights could adversely affect our business.

Our success and ability to compete depend in part upon our ability to obtain, maintain, protect, defend and enforce our intellectual property rights and technology. The steps we take to protect our intellectual property rights might not be sufficient to effectively prevent third parties from infringing, misappropriating, diluting, or otherwise violating our intellectual property rights or to prevent unauthorized disclosure or unauthorized use of our trade secrets or other confidential information. We make business decisions about when to seek patent protection for a particular technology, obtain trademark or copyright protection and when to rely upon trade secret protection, and the approach we select might ultimately prove to be inadequate. We will not be able to protect our intellectual property rights, however, if we do not detect unauthorized use of our intellectual property rights. We also might fail to maintain or be unable to obtain adequate protections for some of our intellectual property rights in the United States and some non-U.S. countries, and our intellectual property rights might not receive the same degree of protection in non-U.S. countries as they would in the United States because of the differences in non-U.S. patent, trademark, copyright, and other laws concerning intellectual property and proprietary rights. In addition, if we do not adequately protect our rights in our trademarks from infringement and unauthorized use, any goodwill that we have developed in those trademarks could be lost or impaired, which could harm our brand and our business. Our trademarks might also be opposed, contested, circumvented or found to be unenforceable, weak or invalid, and we might not be able to prevent third parties from infringing or otherwise violating them or using similar marks in a manner that causes confusion or dilutes the value or strength of our brand.

In addition to registered intellectual property rights, we rely on non-registered proprietary information and technology, such as trade secrets, confidential information and know-how. We attempt to protect our intellectual property, technology, and confidential information by requiring our employees, contractors, consultants, corporate collaborators, advisors and other third parties who develop intellectual property on our behalf to enter into agreements relating to confidentiality and invention assignments, and third parties we share information with to enter into nondisclosure and confidentiality agreements. However, we might not have any such agreements in place with some of the parties who have developed intellectual property on our behalf and/or with some of the parties that have or might have had access to our confidential information, know-how, and trade secrets. Even where these agreements are in place, they might be insufficient or breached, or might not effectively prevent unauthorized access to or unauthorized use, disclosure, misappropriation, or reverse engineering of our confidential information, intellectual property, or technology. Moreover, these agreements might not provide an adequate remedy for breaches or in the event of unauthorized use or disclosure of our confidential information or technology, or infringement of our intellectual property. If any of our trade secrets were to be lawfully obtained or independently developed by a competitor or other third party, we would have no right to prevent them from using that technology or information to compete with us, and our competitive position could be materially and adversely harmed.

The loss of trade secret protection could make it easier for third parties to compete with our products and services by copying functionality. Additionally, individuals not subject to invention assignment agreements might make adverse ownership claims to our current and future intellectual property, and, to the extent that our employees, independent contractors, or other third parties with whom we do business use intellectual property owned by others in their work for us, disputes might arise as to the rights in related or resulting know-how and inventions.

In addition, we might need to expend significant resources to apply for, maintain, enforce and monitor our intellectual property rights and such efforts might be ineffective and could result in substantial costs and diversion of resources. An adverse outcome in any such litigation or proceedings might expose us to

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a loss of our competitive position, significant liabilities, and damage to our brand, or require us to seek licenses that might not be available on commercially acceptable terms, if at all.

We have been, and might in the future be, subject to claims that we violated third-party intellectual property rights, which, even where meritless, can be costly to defend and could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Our success depends, in part, on our ability to develop and commercialize our products and services without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating the intellectual property rights of third parties. However, we might not be aware that our products or services are infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating third-party intellectual property rights and such third parties might bring claims alleging such infringement, misappropriation or violation. As we face increasing competition and become increasingly high profile, the possibility of receiving a larger number of intellectual property claims against us grows. In addition, various “non-practicing entities,” and other intellectual property rights holders have in the past and might in the future attempt to assert intellectual property claims against us or seek to monetize the intellectual property rights they own to extract value through licensing or other settlements.

Our use of third-party software and other intellectual property rights might be subject to claims of infringement or misappropriation. The vendors who provide us with technology that we incorporate in our product offerings also could become subject to various infringement claims.

From time to time, our competitors or other third parties might claim, and have in the past claimed, that we are infringing upon, misappropriating or otherwise violating their intellectual property rights. We cannot predict the outcome of lawsuits and cannot ensure that the results of any such actions will not have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, cash flows or prospects. Any claims or litigation, even those without merit and regardless of the outcome, could cause us to incur significant expenses and, if successfully asserted against us, could require that we pay substantial costs or damages, obtain a license, which might not be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all, pay significant ongoing royalty payments, settlements or licensing fees, satisfy indemnification obligations, prevent us from offering our products or services or using certain technologies, force us to implement expensive and time-consuming work-arounds or re-designs, distract management from our business or impose other unfavorable terms.

We expect that the occurrence of infringement claims is likely to grow as the market for financial services grows and as we introduce new and updated products and services, and the outcome of any allegation is often uncertain. Accordingly, our exposure to damages resulting from infringement claims could increase and this could further exhaust our financial and management resources. Even if intellectual property claims do not result in litigation or are resolved in our favor, these claims, and the time and resources necessary to resolve them, could divert the resources of our management and require significant expenditures.

Some of our products and services contain open source software, which could pose particular risks to our proprietary software, products, and services in a manner that could harm our business.

We use open source software in our products and services (as well as in some of our internally developed systems) and we anticipate using open source software in the future. Some open source software licenses require those who distribute open source software as part of their own software product to publicly disclose all or part of the source code to such software product or to make available any derivative works of the open source code on unfavorable terms or at no cost, and we might be subject to such terms. The terms of many open source licenses to which we are subject have not been interpreted by U.S. or foreign courts, and there is a risk that open source software licenses could be construed in a manner that imposes unanticipated conditions or restrictions on our ability to provide or distribute our products or services. We could face claims from third parties claiming ownership of, or demanding release of, the open source software or derivative works that we developed using such software, which

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could include our proprietary source code, or otherwise seeking to enforce the terms of the applicable open source license. These claims could result in litigation and could require us to make our proprietary software source code freely available, purchase a costly license, or cease offering the implicated products or services unless and until we can offer a different solution, which might be a costly and time-consuming process. While we monitor our use of open source software and try to ensure that none is used in a manner that would require us to disclose our proprietary source code or that would otherwise breach the terms of an open source agreement, such use could inadvertently occur, or could be claimed to have occurred, in part because open source license terms can be ambiguous, vague, or subject to various interpretations, especially given the absence of controlling case law in the U.S. or other courts. Any actual or claimed requirement to disclose our proprietary source code or pay damages for breach of license terms could harm our business and could help third parties, including our competitors, develop products and services that are similar to or better than ours.

Risks Related to Finance, Accounting and Tax Matters

Covenants in our credit agreements could restrict our operations and if we do not effectively manage our business to comply with these covenants, our financial condition could be adversely impacted.

We have entered into two credit agreements and might enter into additional agreements for other borrowing in the future. These agreements contain various restrictive covenants, including, among other things, minimum liquidity and tangible net worth requirements, restrictions on our ability to dispose of assets, make acquisitions or investments, incur debt or liens, make distributions to our stockholders, or enter into certain types of related person transactions. These agreements also contain financial covenants, including obligations to maintain certain capitalization amounts and other financial ratios. These restrictions might restrict our current and future operations, including our ability to incur debt to increase our liquidity position.

Our ability to meet these restrictive covenants can be impacted by events beyond our control that could cause us to be unable to comply. The credit agreements provide that our breach or failure to satisfy some of these covenants constitutes an event of default. Upon the occurrence of an event of default, our lenders could elect to declare all amounts outstanding under our debt agreements to be immediately due and payable. In addition, our lenders might have the right to proceed against the assets we provided as collateral pursuant to the agreements. If the debt under the credit agreements were to be accelerated, and if we did not have sufficient cash on hand or be able to sell sufficient collateral to repay it, it would have an immediate adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our insurance coverage might be inadequate or expensive.

We use a combination of third-party insurance and self-insurance mechanisms, including a wholly owned captive insurance subsidiary. We are subject to claims in the ordinary course of business. These claims can involve substantial amounts of money and involve significant defense costs. It is not possible to prevent or detect all activities giving rise to claims and the precautions we take might not be effective in all cases. We maintain voluntary and required insurance coverage, including, among others, general liability, property, director and officer, excess-SIPC, cyber and data breach, crime and fidelity bond insurance. Our insurance coverage is expensive and maintaining or expanding our insurance coverage might have an adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition.

Our insurance coverage is subject to terms such as deductibles, coinsurance, limits and policy exclusions, as well as risk of counterparty denial of coverage, default or insolvency, and might be insufficient to protect us against all losses and costs stemming from processing, operational, and technological failures. For example, we offer a guarantee to our customers to fully reimburse direct losses that occur due to unauthorized activity that is not the fault of the customer, and any such losses we incur

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in satisfaction of this guarantee might not be fully or even partially covered by insurance. Furthermore, continued insurance coverage might not be available to us in the future on economically reasonable terms, or at all. The successful assertion of one or more large claims against us that exceed available insurance coverage, or the occurrence of changes in our insurance policies, including premium increases or the imposition of large deductible or co-insurance requirements, could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Changes in U.S. and foreign tax laws and policies could adversely impact our tax liabilities.

We are, and may in the future become, subject to complex and evolving U.S. and foreign tax laws and regulations, which might in the future make changes to corporate income tax rates, the treatment of foreign earnings, or other income tax laws that could have an adverse impact on our business, result of operations, financial condition and cash flows.

Our determination of our tax liability is subject to review by applicable tax authorities. The determination of our tax liabilities requires significant judgment and, in the ordinary course of business, there are transactions and calculations where the ultimate tax determination is complex and uncertain. Although we believe our determinations are reasonable, the ultimate amount of our tax obligations owed might differ from the amounts recorded in our financial statements in the event of a review by applicable tax authorities and any such difference could have an adverse effect on our results of operations. Tax authorities might also disagree with certain positions we have taken or might take in the future, which could subject us to additional tax liabilities.

Our corporate structure and associated transfer pricing policies also contemplate future growth in international markets, and consider the functions, risks, and assets of various entities involved in intercompany transactions. The taxing authorities of the jurisdictions in which we operate may challenge our methodologies for valuing intercompany transactions pursuant to our intercompany arrangements or disagree with our determinations as to the income and expenses attributable to specific jurisdictions

In addition, from time to time, proposals are introduced in the U.S. Congress and state legislatures, as well as by foreign governments, to impose new taxes on a broad range of financial transactions, including transactions that occur on our platform, such as the buying and selling of stocks, derivative transactions, and cryptocurrencies. If enacted, such financial transaction taxes could increase the cost to customers of investing or trading on our platform and reduce or adversely affect U.S. market conditions and liquidity, general levels of interest in investing, and the volume of trades and other transactions from which we derive transaction-based revenues. Any financial transaction tax implemented in any jurisdiction in which we operate could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, or results of operations, and as a retail brokerage we could be impacted to a greater degree than other market participants.

We also are subject to non-income taxes, such as payroll, sales, use, value-added, net worth, and property taxes in the United States and various foreign jurisdictions. Specifically, we might be subject to ''digital service taxes'' or new allocations of tax as a result of increasing efforts by certain jurisdictions to tax cross border activities that might not have been subject to tax under existing international tax principles. Companies such as ours could be adversely impacted by such taxes.

Our ability to use our net operating losses to offset future taxable income could be subject to certain limitations.

As of December 31, 2022, we have net operating loss carryforwards (“NOLs”) available to reduce future taxable income. However, under Sections 382 and 383 of the United States Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”), a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change” (as defined by the Code) may be subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change NOLs and other tax attributes such as research tax credits to offset future taxable income. If it is determined that we have in the past

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experienced an ownership change, or if we undergo one or more ownership changes as a result of future transactions in our stock, then our ability to utilize NOLs and other pre-change tax attributes could be limited by Sections 382 and 383 of the Code, and similar state provisions. Future changes in our stock ownership, many of which are outside of our control, could result in an ownership change under Section 382 or 383 of the Code. Furthermore, our ability to utilize NOLs of any companies that we acquire in the future may be subject to limitations. For these reasons, we might not be able to utilize our NOLs, even if we maintain profitability.

Our tax information reporting obligations are subject to change.

Although we believe we are compliant with the tax reporting and withholding requirements with respect to our customers’ transactions in the jurisdictions in which we operate, various U.S., state or foreign tax authorities might significantly change applicable tax reporting requirements or disagree with the exact application of new or existing requirements. If the taxing authorities determine that we are not in compliance with our tax reporting or withholding requirements with respect to customer asset transactions, we may be exposed to additional withholding obligations, which could increase our compliance costs and result in penalties.

We track certain operational metrics, which are subject to inherent challenges in measurement, and real or perceived inaccuracies in such metrics could harm our reputation, adversely affect our stock price, and result in litigation.

We track certain operational metrics using internal company data gathered on an analytics platform that we developed and operate, including metrics such as MAU, AUC and Net Cumulative Funded Accounts, as well as cohorts of our customers, which have not been validated by any independent third party and which might differ from estimates or similar metrics published by other parties due to differences in sources, methodologies, or the assumptions on which we rely. Our internal systems and tools are subject to a number of limitations and our methodologies for tracking these metrics have changed in the past and might change further over time, which could result in unexpected changes to our metrics or otherwise cause the comparability of such metrics from period to period to suffer, including the metrics we publicly disclose. For example, prior to our becoming self-clearing in November 2018, we relied on a third-party provider for our clearing operations, and used data collected by that third party to compute certain metrics, such as Net Cumulative Funded Accounts, that, since November 2018, we have calculated based on data sourced and processed internally. In addition, if the internal systems and tools we use to track these metrics undercount or overcount performance or contain algorithmic or other technical errors, the data we report might not be accurate. While these numbers are based on what we believe to be reasonable estimates of our metrics for the applicable period of measurement, there are inherent challenges in measuring how our platform is used across large populations globally. You should not place undue reliance on such operational metrics when evaluating an investment in our Class A common stock. See “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Key Performance Metrics” for definitions of our key operational metrics.

If our operational metrics are not accurate representations of our business, or if investors do not perceive these metrics to be accurate, or if we discover material inaccuracies with respect to these figures, our reputation could be significantly harmed, the trading price of our Class A common stock could decline and we might be subject to stockholder litigation, which could be costly.

If we fail to maintain effective internal control over financial reporting, as well as required disclosure controls and procedures, our ability to produce timely and accurate consolidated financial statements or comply with applicable regulations could be impaired.

The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 and related rules of the SEC require, among other things, that we maintain effective disclosure controls and procedures and internal control over financial reporting. In order to maintain and improve the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures and internal control

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over financial reporting, we have expended, and anticipate that we will continue to expend, significant resources, including accounting-related costs and significant management oversight.

Our current controls and any new controls that we develop could become inadequate because of changes in conditions in our business. In addition, changes in accounting principles or interpretations could also challenge our internal controls and require that we establish new business processes, systems and controls to accommodate such changes. We have limited experience with implementing the systems and controls that are necessary to operate as a public company, as well as adopting changes in accounting principles or interpretations mandated by the relevant regulatory bodies. Additionally, if these new systems, controls or standards and the associated process changes do not give rise to the benefits that we expect or do not operate as intended, it could adversely affect our financial reporting systems and processes, our ability to produce timely and accurate financial reports or the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. Moreover, our business might be harmed if we experience problems with any new systems and controls that result in delays in their implementation or increased costs to correct any post-implementation issues that might arise. Further, weaknesses in our disclosure controls and internal control over financial reporting could be discovered in the future. Any failure to develop or maintain effective controls or any difficulties encountered in their implementation or improvement could harm our business or cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations and could result in a restatement of our consolidated financial statements for prior periods.

Any failure to implement and maintain effective internal control over financial reporting could also adversely affect the results of periodic management evaluations and annual independent registered public accounting firm attestation reports regarding the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting that are required in our periodic reports filed with the SEC. Ineffective disclosure controls and procedures or internal control over financial reporting could harm our business, cause investors to lose confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our reported financial and other information, and result in us becoming subject to investigations by the stock exchange on which our securities are listed, the SEC or other regulatory authorities, any of which would likely have a negative effect on the trading price of our Class A common stock and have a material and adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. In addition, if we are unable to continue to meet these requirements, we might not be able to remain listed on the Nasdaq.

Risks Related to Our Class A Common Stock

The trading price for our Class A common stock has been and might continue to be volatile and you could lose all or part of your investment.

The trading price of our Class A common stock has been and might continue to be highly volatile and could continue to be subject to fluctuations in response to one or more of the risk factors described in this report, many of which are beyond our control. For example, on November 8, 2022 (the day that FTX halted all non-fiat customer withdrawals from its platform) the intra-day trading price of our Class A common stock fell as much as 18%, and on December 14, 2022 (the day the December 2022 Rule Proposals were announced), the intra-day trading prices of our Class A common stock fell as much as 5.3%. These fluctuations could cause you to lose all or part of your investment in our Class A common stock since you might be unable to sell your shares at or above the price you paid. Additional factors that could have a significant effect on the trading price of our Class A common stock include:

•publication of research reports about us, our competitors, or our industry, or changes in, or failure to meet, estimates made by securities analysts or ratings agencies of our financial and operating performance, or lack of research reports by industry analysts or ceasing of analyst coverage;

•announcements by us or our competitors of new offerings or platform features;

•the public’s perception of the quality and accuracy of our key metrics on our customer base and engagement;

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•the public’s reaction to our media statements, other public announcements and filings with the SEC;

•rumors and market speculation involving us or other companies in our industry;

•the extent to which retail and other individual investors (as distinguished from institutional investors), including our customers, invest in our Class A common stock, which might result in increased volatility; and

•media coverage related to certain individuals and entities identified as having owned our stock, and any speculation related to plans to dispose of their holdings; for example, media coverage related to the Emergent Shares (defined below).

In addition, in the past, following periods of volatility in the overall market and the trading price of a particular company’s securities, securities class action litigation has often been instituted against these companies. This litigation, if instituted against us, could result in substantial costs and a diversion of our management’s attention and resources.

Further, if the market price of our Class A common stock is above the level that investors determine is reasonable for our Class A common stock, some investors might attempt to short our Class A common stock, which would create additional downward pressure on the trading price of our Class A common stock.

Substantial future issuances or sales of shares of our Class A common stock in the public market could result in significant dilution to our stockholders and such issuances or sales, or the perception that they may occur, could cause the trading price of our Class A common stock to fall.

As of June 30, 2023, our founders and their related entities hold approximately 14% of our outstanding common stock (and, as described in the following risk factor, over 50% of the voting power of our outstanding capital stock). If our founders or other significant stockholders sell, or indicate an intent to sell, large amounts of stock in the public market, or the perception that these sales might occur, could cause the trading price of our Class A common stock to decline substantially. For example, as of January 6, 2023, 55,273,469 shares of our outstanding common stock (the “Emergent Shares”) that were originally acquired by Emergent Fidelity Technologies, Ltd., a holding company which was majority owned by Samuel Benjamin Bankman-Fried, are held by the DOJ. Mr. Bankman-Fried has been indicted on criminal charges related to his involvement with FTX, and the DOJ seized the Emergent Shares in connection with his indictment. On February 8, 2023, we announced that our board of directors had authorized us to pursue purchasing most or all of the Emergent Shares and that we cannot predict when, or if, the share purchase will take place. Any substantial sale of the Emergent Shares or perception that such a sale might occur could cause the trading price of our Class A common stock to decline substantially.

Similarly, significant numbers of shares are subject to future issuance including under outstanding warrants held by pre-IPO investors, and under outstanding stock options and RSUs held by employees and other service providers, and significant numbers of additional shares are available for award grant purposes under our 2021 Plan and for issuance under our Employee Share Purchase Plan. All of these shares will become eligible for sale in the public market upon exercise, vesting, or settlement, as applicable (and to the extent granted in the discretion of our board of directors, in the case of shares available for grant). Moreover, to fund the tax withholding and remittance obligations arising in connection with future vesting and settlement of RSUs, we currently intend to have most holders of such RSUs, including our founders, sell a portion of such shares into the market on the applicable settlement date, with the proceeds of such sales delivered to us for remittance to the relevant taxing authorities. These and any future issuances of shares of our capital stock, or of securities convertible into or exercisable for our capital stock could depress the market price of our Class A common stock and result in a significant dilution for stockholders.

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We have authorized more capital stock in recent years to provide additional stock options and RSUs to our employees and to permit for the consummation of equity and equity-linked financings and might continue to do so in the future. Our employee headcount has increased significantly in the past few years, so the amount of dilution due to awards of equity-based compensation to our employees could be substantial. Further, any sales of our Class A common stock (including shares of Class A common stock issuable upon conversion of our Class B common stock, as stock options are exercised, or as RSUs are settled) might make it more difficult for us to sell equity securities in the future at a time and at a price that we deem appropriate. These sales could also cause the trading price of our Class A common stock to fall and make it more difficult for you to sell shares of our Class A common stock.

The multi-class structure of our common stock has the effect of concentrating voting power with our founders, which limits your ability to influence the outcome of matters submitted to our stockholders for approval. In addition, the Founders’ Voting Agreement and any future issuances of our Class C common stock could prolong the duration of our founders’ voting control.

Our Class A common stock has one vote per share, our Class B common stock has 10 votes per share and our Class C common stock has no voting rights, except as otherwise required by law. Our founders and certain of their related entities (“Founder Affiliates”) together hold all of the issued and outstanding shares of our Class B common stock. Accordingly, Mr. Tenev, who is also our CEO, President and a director, and Mr. Bhatt, who is also our Chief Creative Officer and a director, collectively with their related entities hold over 50% of the voting power of our outstanding capital stock. As a result, our founders have the ability to determine or significantly influence any action requiring the approval of our stockholders, including the election of our board of directors, the adoption of amendments to our Charter and our Amended and Restated Bylaws (our “Bylaws”) and the approval of any merger, consolidation, sale of all or substantially all of our assets or other major corporate transaction.

In addition, our founders and Founder Affiliates have entered into a voting agreement (the “Founders’ Voting Agreement”) in which they have agreed, among other things, (i) to vote all of the shares of our common stock held by such founder or Founder Affiliate for the election of each founder to, and against the removal of each founder from, our board of directors, (ii) to vote together in the election of other directors generally, subject to deferring to the decision of the nominating and corporate governance committee in the event of any disagreement between the founders, (iii) effective upon a founder’s death or disability, to grant a voting proxy to the other founder with respect to shares of our common stock held by the deceased or disabled founder or over which he was entitled to vote (or direct the voting) immediately prior to his death or disability, and (iv) to grant each other rights of first offer in the event of proposed transfers that would otherwise cause Class B shares to convert into Class A shares under our Charter. The Founders’ Voting Agreement has the effect of concentrating voting power in our founders (or either one of them).

Further pursuant to the equity exchange right agreements entered into between us and each of our founders in connection with our IPO, each of our founders has a right (but not an obligation) to require us to exchange, for shares of Class B common stock, any shares of Class A common stock received by them upon the vesting and settlement of pre-IPO RSUs (the “Equity Exchange Rights”). Any exercise by our founders of these Equity Exchange Rights will dilute the voting power of holders of our Class A common stock.

Our founders might have interests that differ from yours and might vote in a way with which you disagree and which may be adverse to your interests. Therefore, the founders’ concentrated voting control might have the effect of delaying, preventing or deterring a change in control of our Company, could deprive our stockholders of an opportunity to receive a premium for their capital stock as part of a sale of our Company, and might ultimately affect the market price of our Class A common stock. Further, the separation between voting power and economic interests could cause conflicts of interest between our founders and our other stockholders, which might result in our founders undertaking, or causing us to undertake, actions that would be desirable for our founders but would not be desirable for our other stockholders.

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We have no current plans to issue shares of our Class C common stock. Because the shares of our Class C common stock have no voting rights, except as required by law, if we issue Class C common stock in the future, the voting control of our founders could be maintained for a longer period of time than would be the case if we issued Class A common stock rather than Class C common stock.

Certain provisions in our Charter and our Bylaws and of Delaware law as well as certain FINRA rules might prevent or delay an acquisition of Robinhood, which could decrease the trading price of our Class A common stock.

Our Charter and our Bylaws contain, and Delaware law contains, provisions that might have the effect of deterring takeovers by making such takeovers more expensive to the bidder and by encouraging prospective acquirers to negotiate with our board of directors rather than to attempt a hostile takeover, such as a classified board, limitations on the ability of stockholders to take action by written consent, and the ability of our board to designate the terms of preferred stock and authorize its issuance without stockholder approval. We believe these provisions will protect our stockholders from coercive or otherwise unfair takeover tactics by requiring potential acquirers to negotiate with our board of directors and by providing our board of directors with more time to assess any acquisition proposal. These provisions are not intended to make Robinhood immune from takeovers. However, these provisions will apply even if the offer might be considered beneficial by some stockholders and could delay or prevent an acquisition that our board of directors determines is not in the best interests of Robinhood and our stockholders. Accordingly, if our board of directors determines that a potential acquisition is not in the best interests of Robinhood and our stockholders, but certain stockholders believe that such a transaction would be beneficial to Robinhood and our stockholders, such stockholders might elect to sell their shares in Robinhood and the trading price of our Class A common stock could decrease. These and other provisions of our Charter, our Bylaws and the Delaware General Corporation Law could have the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control, which might limit the opportunity for our stockholders to receive a premium for their shares of our Class A common stock and might also affect the price that some investors are willing to pay for our Class A common stock.

In addition, a third party attempting to acquire us or a substantial position in our Class A common stock might be delayed or ultimately prevented from doing so by change in ownership or control regulations to which certain of our regulated subsidiaries are subject. For example, FINRA Rule 1017 generally provides that FINRA approval must be obtained in connection with any transaction resulting in a single person or entity owning, directly or indirectly, 25% or more of a FINRA member firm’s equity and would include a change in control of a parent company and similar approval from the U.K. Financial Conduct Authority, which regulates our U.K. authorized broker-dealer subsidiary (which does not currently do business), must be obtained in connection with any transaction resulting in a person or entity holding, directly or indirectly, 10% or more of the equity or voting power of a U.K. authorized person or the parent of a U.K. authorized person. These and any other applicable regulations relating to changes in control of us or our regulated subsidiaries could further have the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control of us.

The exclusive forum provisions of our Charter could limit our stockholders’ ability to choose the judicial forum for some types of lawsuits against us or our directors, officers, or employees.

Our Charter provides that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, to the fullest extent permitted by law, the sole and exclusive forum for a number of types of actions or proceedings shall be the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware (or, if the Court of Chancery does not have subject matter jurisdiction, another state court sitting in the State of Delaware) (or, if no state court located within the State of Delaware has jurisdiction, the federal district court for the District of Delaware), in all cases subject to the court having jurisdiction over indispensable parties named as defendants. Our Charter also provides that the federal district courts of the United States will be the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action under the Securities Act. Nothing

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in our Charter precludes stockholders that assert claims under the Exchange Act from bringing such claims in any court, subject to applicable law.

Any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring or holding any interest in any of our securities shall be deemed to have notice of and consented to these provisions. These exclusive forum provisions might limit a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum of its choosing for disputes with us or our directors, officers, or other employees, which might discourage lawsuits against us and our directors, officers, and other employees. The enforceability of similar choice of forum provisions in other companies’ charter documents has been challenged in legal proceedings, and it is possible that a court could find these types of provisions to be inapplicable or unenforceable. If a court were to find the exclusive forum provisions in our Charter to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we might incur additional costs associated with resolving the dispute in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our results of operations.

ITEM 2. UNREGISTERED SALES OF EQUITY SECURITIES AND USE OF PROCEEDS

Sales of Unregistered Securities

From April 1, 2023 through June 30, 2023 we did not sell any shares of Class A common stock (or other equity securities of Robinhood Markets, Inc.) that were not registered under the Securities Act.

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ITEM 3. DEFAULTS UPON SENIOR SECURITIES

Not applicable.

ITEM 4. MINE SAFETY DISCLOSURES

Not applicable.

ITEM 5. OTHER INFORMATION

(c) On May 16, 2023, Steven Quirk, our Chief Brokerage Officer, adopted a “Rule 10b5-1 trading arrangement” (as defined in Item 408(a) of Regulation S-K) intended to satisfy the affirmative defense of Rule 10b5-1(c) under the Exchange Act pursuant to which he may sell (i) up to 61,686 shares of our Class A common stock, (ii) up to 139,929 shares of our Class A common stock (less certain shares previously sold under predecessor Rule 10b5-1 trading arrangements), and (iii) designated percentages of the net settlement of 689,556 unvested RSUs, in each case on or prior to September 27, 2024. RSUs convert into Class A common stock on a one-for-one basis upon vesting and settlement.

In addition, certain of our officers may, from time to time, make elections to participate in our ESPP and to have shares withheld to cover withholding taxes or pay the exercise price of options, which may be designed to satisfy the affirmative defense conditions of Rule 10b5-1 under the Exchange Act or may constitute “non-Rule 10b5-1 trading arrangements” (as defined in Item 408(c) of Regulation S-K).

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ITEM 6. EXHIBIT INDEX

The documents listed below are filed (or furnished, as noted) as exhibits to this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q:

Incorporated by Reference

Exhibit Number

Description

Form*

Filing Date

Exhibit

Filed Herewith

3.1

Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation of Robinhood Markets, Inc., dated August 2, 2021

8-K

2021-08-02

3.1

3.2

Amended and Restated Bylaws of Robinhood Markets, Inc., dated February 24, 2022

10-K

2022-02-24

3.2

4.1

Form of Class A Common Stock Certificate of Robinhood Markets, Inc.

S-1/A

2021-07-19

4.1

4.2

Form of ten-year Warrant to Purchase Stock of Robinhood Markets, Inc., issued to multiple investors on February 12, 2021

S-1

2021-07-01

4.2

31.1

CEO Certification pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act

31.2

CFO Certification pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act

32.1‡

CEO Certification pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act

32.2‡

CFO Certification pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act

101.INS

iXBRL (Inline eXtensible Business Reporting Language) Instance Document - the instance document does not appear in the Interactive Data File because its XBRL tags are embedded within the Inline XBRL document

101.SCH

iXBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema Document

101.CAL

iXBRL Taxonomy Extension Calculation Linkbase Document

101.DEF

iXBRL Taxonomy Extension Definition Linkbase Document

101.LAB

iXBRL Taxonomy Extension Label Linkbase Document.

101.PRE

iXBRL Taxonomy Extension Presentation Linkbase Document.

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Cover Page Interactive Data File (contained in Exhibit 101)

__________________

* File number is 001-40691 except that the S-1 (and S-1/A) file number is 333-257602.

‡ The certifications attached as Exhibits 32.1 and 32.2 that accompany this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q are deemed furnished and not filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission and are not to be incorporated by reference into any filing of Robinhood Markets, Inc. under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, whether made before or after the date of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, irrespective of any general incorporation language contained in such filing.

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SIGNATURES

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Registrant has duly signed this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned, thereunto duly authorized, in Menlo Park, California, on August 3, 2023.


Robinhood Markets, Inc.

By:			/s/ Vladimir Tenev
Name:			Vladimir Tenev
Title:			Co-Founder, Chief Executive Officer and President

By:			/s/ Jason Warnick
Name:			Jason Warnick
Title:			Chief Financial Officer (Principal Financial Officer and Principal Accounting Officer)

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