Atara Biotherapeutics, Inc. - Annual Report: 2020 (Form 10-K)

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2020

OR

For the transition period from              to             

Commission File Number 001-36548

ATARA BIOTHERAPEUTICS, INC.

(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its Charter)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (650) 278-8930

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. Yes ☒ NO ☐

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Act. YES ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ NO ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ NO ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See definitions of “large accelerated filer”, “accelerated filer”, “smaller reporting company” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report.  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). YES ☐ NO ☒  

The aggregate market value of common stock held by non-affiliates of the Registrant, based on the closing sales price for such stock on June 30, 2020 as reported by The Nasdaq Stock Market, was $906,895,284. This calculation excludes 12,063,880 shares held by executive officers, directors and stockholders that the Registrant has concluded are affiliates of the Registrant. Exclusion of such shares should not be construed to indicate that any such person possesses the power, direct or indirect, to direct or cause the direction of the management or policies of the registrant or that such person is controlled by or under common control with the Registrant.

The number of outstanding shares of the Registrant’s Common Stock as of February 18, 2021 was 83,614,853.

DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

Portions of the Registrant’s definitive proxy statement relating to its 2021 Annual Meeting of Stockholders are incorporated by reference into Part III of this Report where indicated. Such proxy statement will be filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission within 120 days after the end of the fiscal year to which this report relates.

ATARA BIOTHERAPEUTICS, INC.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of the safe harbor provisions of the U.S. Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Such forward-looking statements, which represent our intent, belief or current expectations, involve risks and uncertainties and other factors that could cause actual results and the timing of certain events to differ materially from future results expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. In some cases you can identify these statements by forward-looking words such as “believe,” “may,” “will,” “estimate,” “continue,” “anticipate,” “intend,” “could,” “would,” “project,” “predict,” “plan,” “expect” or the negative or plural of these words or similar expressions. The forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to, statements about:

These statements are only current predictions and are subject to known and unknown risks, uncertainties, including, without limitation, risks and uncertainties associated with the costly and time-consuming pharmaceutical product development process and the uncertainty of clinical success; the COVID-19 pandemic, which may significantly impact (i) our business, research, clinical development plans and operations, including our operations in South San Francisco and Southern California and at our clinical trial sites, as well as the business or operations of our third-party manufacturer, contract research organizations or other third parties with whom we conduct business, (ii) our ability to access capital, and (iii) the value of our common stock; the sufficiency of our cash resources and need for additional capital, and other factors that may cause our or our industry’s actual results, levels of activity, performance or achievements to be materially different from those anticipated by the forward-looking statements. We discuss many of these risks in this report in greater detail under the heading “1A. Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this report. You should not rely upon forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. New risk factors and uncertainties may emerge from time to time, and it is not possible for management to predict all risks and uncertainties.

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In this Annual Report on Form 10-K, unless the context requires otherwise, “Atara,” “Atara Biotherapeutics,” “Company,” “we,” “our,” and “us” means Atara Biotherapeutics, Inc. and, where appropriate, its subsidiaries.

Summary Risk Factors

Our business is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties that may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. These risks are more fully described below. These risks include, among others:

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PART I

Item 1. Business

Overview

Atara Biotherapeutics is a pioneer in T-cell immunotherapy, leveraging its novel allogeneic Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) T-cell platform to develop transformative therapies for patients with serious diseases, including solid tumors, hematologic cancers and autoimmune disease. With our lead program in Phase 3 clinical development, we are the most advanced allogeneic T-cell immunotherapy company and intend to rapidly deliver off-the-shelf treatments to patients with high unmet medical need. Our platform leverages the unique biology of EBV T cells and has the capability to treat a wide range of EBV-driven diseases or other serious diseases through incorporation of engineered chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) or T-cell receptors (TCRs). Atara is applying this one platform to create a robust pipeline. Our strategic priorities are:

Our T-cell immunotherapy platform includes the capability to progress both allogeneic and autologous programs and is potentially applicable to a broad array of targets and diseases. Our off-the-shelf, allogeneic T-cell platform allows for rapid delivery of a T-cell immunotherapy product manufactured in advance of patient need and stored in inventory, with each manufactured lot of cells providing therapy for numerous potential patients. This differs from autologous treatments, in which each patient’s own cells must be extracted, genetically modified outside the body and then delivered back to the patient, requiring a complex logistics network. For our allogeneic programs, we select the appropriate set of cells for use based on a patient’s unique immune profile. In addition, our manufacturing facility has the flexibility to manufacture multiple T-cell and CAR T immunotherapies while integrating research and process science functions to enable increased collaboration for rapid product development. We are currently in the process of completing our facility’s commercial production qualification activities for tab-cel^® while building inventory according to our commercial product supply strategy.

In December 2020, we entered into a Research, Development and License Agreement with Bayer (the Bayer License Agreement) pursuant to which we granted to Bayer an exclusive, field-limited license under the applicable patents and know-how owned or controlled by us and our affiliates covering or related to ATA2271 and ATA3271. See section ‘Terms of Certain License and Research and Development Collaboration Agreements’ below for additional details.

We have also entered into research collaborations with leading academic institutions such as Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSK), the Council of the Queensland Institute of Medical Research (QIMR Berghofer) and H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute (Moffitt) pursuant to which we acquired rights to novel and proprietary technologies and programs.

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Pipeline

Our pipeline is summarized below:

These investigational agents are not approved by any regulatory agencies. Efficacy and safety have not been established.

EBV+ PTLD: EBV-driven Post-Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disease; RR: rituximab relapsed/refractory; HCT: allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant; SOT: solid organ transplant

Other programs: ATA2321 (AML), ATA2431 (B-cell malignancies), and ATA368 (HPV)

Tab-cel^®

EBV+ PTLD

Since its discovery as the first human oncovirus, EBV has been implicated in the development of a wide range of diseases, including lymphomas and other cancers. EBV is widespread in human populations and persists as a lifelong, asymptomatic infection. In healthy individuals, a small percentage of T cells are devoted to keeping EBV in check. In contrast, immunocompromised patients, such as those undergoing hematopoietic cell transplants (HCT) or solid organ transplants (SOT) have a reduced ability to control EBV. Left without appropriate immune surveillance, EBV-transformed cells can, in some patients, proliferate and cause an aggressive, life-threatening cancer called EBV+ PTLD. Nearly all cases of PTLD that occur following HCT are EBV positive while approximately 60% of PTLD cases that occur following SOT are EBV positive.

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Historical studies suggest a high unmet medical need for improved therapies in patients with EBV+ PTLD who have failed rituximab or rituximab plus chemotherapy, with approximately 40% to 60% of patients either not responding to or progressing following this first line of therapy. Expected median overall survival in patients with EBV+ PTLD following HCT who have failed rituximab-based first line therapy is approximately 1.7 months, and for patients with EBV+ PTLD following SOT who have failed rituximab-based first line therapy, the median overall survival is approximately 3.3 months. The use of chemotherapy in patients with EBV+ PTLD who have failed rituximab is frequently associated with significant rates of treatment-related mortality due to the frailty of the patients and severe toxicities associated with chemotherapy. Based on our market research, we estimate there were several hundred EBV+ PTLD patients who failed rituximab or rituximab plus chemotherapy in the U.S. in 2019.

Tab-cel^® for EBV+ PTLD

In June 2015, we licensed certain patent rights, know-how and a library of T cells and cell lines specific to EBV from MSK under an exclusive license agreement. In accordance with the license agreement, we agreed to use commercially reasonable efforts to commercialize the licensed products and to make milestone payments with respect to the licensed programs and to make royalty payments to MSK to the extent product candidates arising from the collaboration are commercialized. Our most advanced product candidate, tab-cel^®, is part of this MSK collaboration and targets EBV.

Tab-cel^® is an allogeneic EBV-specific T-cell immunotherapy that is currently in Phase 3 development for the treatment of patients with EBV+ PTLD who have failed rituximab or rituximab plus chemotherapy. Tab-cel^® is also under development for other EBV+ diseases with significant unmet medical need through a Phase 2 multi-cohort study that was initiated in the third quarter of 2020.

Tab-cel^® has received Breakthrough Therapy Designation (BTD) from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of patients with EBV+ PTLD after HCT who have failed rituximab, PRIority MEdicines (PRIME) designation from the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for the same indication, and orphan designation in the U.S. and European Union (EU) for the treatment of patients with EBV+ PTLD following HCT or SOT.

In clinical studies conducted at MSK that have enrolled patients with EBV+ PTLD following HCT and SOT, efficacy following treatment with tab-cel^® monotherapy compared favorably with historical data in these patient populations. Patients with EBV+ PTLD after HCT who have failed rituximab and were treated with tab-cel^® had two-year overall survival of approximately 83% in two separate clinical studies. In the setting of EBV+ PTLD after SOT in patients who have failed rituximab, similar results were observed, with two-year overall survival of approximately 86% in tab-cel^®-treated patients. A response rate of greater than or equal to 50% was observed in HCT and SOT patients in these studies.

In December 2017, we initiated two Phase 3 studies for tab-cel^® intended to support approval in two separate indications, the treatment of EBV+ PTLD following HCT (which was referred to as the MATCH study) and SOT in patients who have failed rituximab (which was referred to as the ALLELE study). In 2019, after discussion and alignment with regulators, we combined MATCH and ALLELE into a single study (which we now refer to as the ALLELE study) that now consists of an HCT cohort for EBV+ PTLD patients who have failed rituximab, and a single SOT cohort for EBV+ PTLD patients who have failed prior treatment with rituximab with or without chemotherapy. Additionally, we expanded the ALLELE study geographically to include clinical sites in Europe and Canada.

We completed an interim analysis for the ALLELE study in the third quarter of 2020. Data from the interim analysis showed a 50 percent objective response rate (ORR) to tab-cel^® with independent oncologic and radiographic assessment (IORA) in patients with relapsed-refractory EBV+ PTLD following HCT or SOT, that had reached at least six months follow-up after the ORR assessment. This ORR is consistent with previously published investigator assessed data. The tab-cel^® safety profile is also consistent with previously published data, with no new safety signals.

In January 2021, we presented transcriptional data for tab-cel^® at the 2021 Transplantation & Cellular Therapy Meeting demonstrating consistency of the product’s activation profile irrespective of donor and consistent enrichment of receptors targeting EBV-driven diseases.

Prior to initiating the BLA, we require a procedural decision from the FDA related to how the historical non-pivotal data should be presented in the BLA submission. Following FDA agreement in October 2020 that the pivotal ALLELE data will be the primary basis for approval, and that historical non-pivotal clinical data will be supportive, the FDA needs to decide whether they view the drug product manufactured by our academic partner used in historical, non-pivotal studies as comparable to the drug product manufactured by Atara used in the pivotal ALLELE study. This decision will then determine if we will submit in the clinical module the pivotal and non-pivotal data combined in pooled analyses or separately in parallel analyses. The type of analysis does not change expectations regarding the proposed product indication for previously treated patients with EBV+ PTLD.

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We continue to have ongoing active and productive dialogue with the FDA, which has already resulted in several key points of agreement, including: (i) a rolling submission is acceptable for the BLA, (ii) we can complete the BLA submission with currently enrolled patients in the pivotal ALLELE study with at least six-months follow-up of duration of response, and (iii) the FDA will consider historical data from the Phase 2 trials conducted at MSK, our Phase 2 multicenter expanded access protocol (EAP) and the Single Patient Use (SPU) program as supportive data to the pivotal ALLELE study in the BLA clinical module. We have completed the preclinical module 4 and are ready to initiate a rolling BLA with this module once the FDA decides on a procedural question related to how the historical non-pivotal data should be presented in the BLA submission. We are also making progress through active and productive discussions with the FDA to align on the final content of the chemistry, manufacturing and control (CMC) module 3 of the BLA.

We remain on track to complete a rolling BLA submission for patients with EBV+ PTLD with the clinical module in the third quarter of 2021. We expect to present data from the pivotal ALLELE study at an appropriate congress in the fourth quarter of 2021. We anticipate potential approval of the BLA in the first half of 2022.

We are also planning to submit a tab-cel^® marketing authorization application (MAA) for patients with EBV+ PTLD in the EU in the fourth quarter of 2021. We received a positive opinion from the Pediatric Committee (PDCO) of the EMA regarding a Pediatric Investigation Plan (PIP) in November 2020, and the EMA ratified our PIP in December 2020. We anticipate potential approval of the MAA in the second half of 2022.

While clinical study operations and the opening of additional ALLELE sites in the United States, Canada and Europe have been impacted by the spread of COVID-19, most sites are currently open for patient enrollment.

We are continuing our preparations and investing further in commercial readiness activities in anticipation of planned commercialization of tab-cel^® in the U.S. We expect to pursue approvals in key geographies and are seeking a partner for the commercialization of tab-cel^® outside the U.S.

Tab-cel^® Multi-Cohort Study

We continue to pursue development of tab-cel^® in earlier lines of therapy with the goal of expanding the potential label in PTLD and closely related diseases. We intend to focus on extending further into immunodeficiency-associated lymphoproliferative diseases (IA-LPDs) as the next step in the tab-cel^® potential label expansion given the commonality of their EBV-driven mechanism of disease in immunocompromised patients, high unmet medical need and positive clinical data to date with tab-cel^®. We initiated a Phase 2 multi-cohort study in the third quarter of 2020 concurrently in the U.S. and EU. The multi-cohort study will evaluate both treatment-naïve and previously treated patients in six patient populations, including four within IA-LPDs and two in other EBV-driven diseases. Data from this Phase 2 study is expected in 2023.

Data was featured in an e-poster at the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) 2020 Virtual Congress in September 2020 and demonstrated that tab-cel^® was well-tolerated and showed encouraging clinical activity in patients with EBV+ AID-LPD and EBV+ PID-LPD (Acquired and Primary Immunodeficiency Lymphoproliferative Diseases).

In patients where previous treatments have failed, the objective response rates, including complete response, were 33.3% (three out of nine patients) in AID-LPD and 37.5% (three out of eight patients) in PID-LPD groups. Tab-cel^® was generally well-tolerated with a favorable safety profile consistent with previously published clinical studies. Data on tab-cel^® in patients with life-threatening complications stemming from persistent EBV viremia were presented at the 62^nd American Society of Hematology (ASH) Annual Meeting and Exposition in December 2020. These clinical data demonstrated that tab-cel^® was well-tolerated and showed encouraging clinical activity in this patient population, with objective response rates ranging from 50% (two out of four patients) to 80% (four out of five patients). The overall survival (OS) rate at one year in patients with EBV viremia treated in the EAP-201 study was 100 percent for a median follow-up of 14.6 months (min 12.2, max 17.8).

Tab-cel^® for NPC

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a type of head and neck cancer that is primarily associated with EBV. Standard treatment for NPC typically includes radiation therapy, platinum-based chemotherapy or a combination of both. Surgical intervention is only rarely employed and is usually only utilized in select early-stage cases. There are no approved therapeutic agents available to treat relapsed/refractory NPC, although there are multiple agents in development for this patient population.

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In April 2017, we entered into an agreement with Merck Sharp & Dohme (known as MSD outside of the U.S. and Canada) to provide drug supply for a study to be sponsored and conducted by us to evaluate tab-cel^® in combination with Merck’s anti-PD-1 (programmed death receptor-1) therapy, KEYTRUDA^® (pembrolizumab), in patients with platinum-resistant or recurrent EBV-driven NPC. Our Phase 1b study, which was initiated in 2018, achieved its safety endpoints and stable disease in some patients. Based on a strategic prioritization to expand tab-cel^® business potential through the significant opportunity in IA-LPDs, we will focus our tab-cel^® efforts on the execution of the Phase 2 multi-cohort study and the planned BLA initiation in EBV+ PTLD. At this time, we will not initiate the Phase 2 portion of the NPC study in combination with pembrolizumab. We intend to generate additional translational data in NPC in 2021 to further inform our strategy on this patient population. We plan to share data from the NPC study at an appropriate forum in the future.

ATA188

Multiple Sclerosis

We are also developing ATA188, an allogeneic T-cell immunotherapy targeting EBV antigens believed to be important for the potential treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is a chronic autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) that disrupts the myelination and normal functioning of the brain, optic nerves and spinal cord through inflammation and tissue loss. The evolution of MS results in an increasing loss of both physical and cognitive (e.g., memory) function. This has a substantial negative impact on the approximately 2.3 million patients worldwide diagnosed and living with MS, with approximately one million of those patients having a progressive form of MS.

There are two categories of MS: progressive MS (PMS) and relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). RRMS is a form of MS that is characterized by episodes of new or worsening signs or symptoms (relapses) followed by periods of recovery and quiescence during which the disease does not progress. PMS is a severe form of MS that is characterized by persistent progression and worsening of MS symptoms and physical disability over time for which there are few therapeutic options. There are two types of PMS: primary progressive MS (PPMS) and secondary progressive MS (SPMS). PPMS occurs when the patient has a disease course characterized by steady and progressive worsening after disease onset. SPMS initially begins as RRMS, but once patients have continuous progression of their disease, they have developed SPMS.

Scientific and clinical findings support a potential biologic connection between EBV and MS. EBV is present in nearly all patients with MS. The MS disease course has been shown to correlate with measures of EBV activity, and with exhaustion of endogenous EBV-specific T cell populations. In addition, in separate studies, clear differences in location and frequency of EBV-infected B cells and plasma cells were evident between the brains of subjects without MS and the brains of MS patients, where EBV-infected B cells and plasma cells were in close proximity to areas of active demyelination. Further data suggest that EBV-positive B cells and plasma cells in the CNS have the potential to catalyze an autoimmune response, resulting in the typical MS pathophysiology. In patients with MS, their T cells may be unable to control EBV-positive B cells and plasma cells so that B cells and plasma cells could then accumulate in the brain, function as antigen-presenting cells and generate antibodies that attack and destroy myelin, the protective layer that insulates nerves in the brain and spinal cord. This loss of myelin ultimately leads to MS symptoms. The role of B cells in MS is supported by the approval by the FDA of ocrelizumab for PPMS, which broadly targets B cells (and not plasma cells) outside of the CNS through their expression of a cell surface marker known as CD20.

Based on our analysis of industry data and assumed increases in treatment rates and market share for a best-in-class treatment, we estimate that the potential annual U.S. market opportunity in PMS could be at least $3.5 billion by 2025.

ATA188 for MS

We licensed rights to certain know-how and technology from QIMR Berghofer that uses targeted antigen recognition to create off-the-shelf T-cell immunotherapy product candidates applicable to a variety of diseases, including autoimmune conditions such as MS. Our license agreement with QIMR Berghofer requires that we make various milestone and royalty payments to QIMR Berghofer based on the sales of products arising from this collaboration, if any. We are also working with QIMR Berghofer on the development of EBV-targeted and other virally targeted T cells. Through this technology, we are expanding the role of T-cell-based immunotherapy beyond oncology and viral infections to autoimmune diseases.

Our T-cell immunotherapy product candidate utilizing this technology, ATA188, is an off-the-shelf EBV-specific T-cell preparation that utilizes an MS-specific targeted antigen recognition technology that enables the T cells we administer to selectively identify cells expressing the EBV antigens that we believe are important for the potential treatment of MS. ATA188 is designed to selectively target only those cells which are EBV-positive while sparing those that are not. We believe that eliminating only EBV-positive B cells and plasma cells has the potential to benefit some patients with MS.

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In the fourth quarter of 2017, we initiated an open label, single arm, multi-center, multi-national Phase 1 study with allogeneic ATA188 for patients with PMS. The primary objective of this Phase 1 study is to assess the safety of ATA188 in patients followed for at least one year after the first dose. Key secondary endpoints in the study include measures of clinical improvement, using recognized scales for MS symptoms, function and disability including Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), Fatigue Severity Score, MS Impact Scale-29 (physical), Timed 25-Foot Walk (T25FW), 9-Hole Peg Test, 12-Item MS Walking Scale (MSWS-12) and Visual Acuity.

Enrollment for the fourth and final dose escalation cohort in the Phase 1a portion of the study was completed in the third quarter of 2019 and we presented updated efficacy and safety results from this study at the MSVirtual2020: 8^th Joint ACTRIMS-ECTRIMS Meeting in September 2020. The data demonstrated that ATA188 was well-tolerated across all four dose cohorts, with no dose-limiting toxicities and no fatal adverse events. Additionally, patients who demonstrated sustained disability improvement (SDI) at any timepoint maintained improvement at all future timepoints, and higher proportion of patients showed SDI with increasing dose (42% in cohorts 3 and 4 (higher doses) versus 17% in cohorts 1 and 2 (lower doses)). SDI is defined as clinically significant improvement in EDSS or T25FW observed at two consecutive time points. ATA188 treatment showed no clinically meaningful effect on cytokine levels and no dose-related safety trends were identified. Rhinorrhea (runny nose) was the only treatment-related event that occurred in more than one subject. No dose-limiting toxicities and no fatal adverse events have been reported. The safety profile has remained consistent with previously reported data. We also presented preclinical translation data at ACTRIMS-ECTRIMS that further support the proposed mechanism of action of ATA188 targeting EBV-infected B cells. These combined analyses of T cells comprising ATA188 are consistent with its proposed mechanism of targeting EBV-infected B cells by recognizing MS-relevant EBV antigens on these cells via defined TCRs. While these data will need to be confirmed in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study, they indicate the potential for the first treatment option in PMS to halt or reverse the progression of disease. We believe these results align with the body of evidence supporting the important role of EBV-infected B cells in the chronic autoimmune pathology of MS.

We are also re-treating patients with Cohort 3 dose in an open-label extension (OLE) of the Phase 1a study and we presented the first available data from the OLE at the ACTRIMS-ECTRIMS Meeting in September 2020. We presented updated data from the OLE in an e-poster at the European Charcot Foundation 28th  Annual Meeting in November 2020, including data on 24 patients from the 12-month dose escalation portion of the trial, 16 of whom entered the OLE and had ≥15-month data available as of October 2020. Throughout the entire Phase 1a and OLE study, nine of the 16 patients who entered the OLE demonstrated SDI with ATA188 treatment (seven achieved SDI in the first 12 months and two during the OLE). In seven out of the nine patients, SDI was driven by sustained improvement in EDSS. A dose-related increase in the number of patients meeting SDI criteria was observed. Similar safety profile with no dose-limiting toxicities was shown in the highest dose cohorts (Cohorts 3 and 4). In the two highest dose cohorts, five out of 12 total patients (42%) and six out of 12 total patients (50%) demonstrated SDI at 12 and 15 months, respectively. SDI was driven by EDSS in all but one of the patients in Cohorts 3 and 4; all SDI observed in Cohort 4 was based on EDSS improvement. The Cohort 3 and 4 doses demonstrated similar efficacy profile based on SDI, with the Cohort 4 dose trending toward greater effect on EDSS. We plan to re-treat patients in the OLE with Cohort 4 dose in subsequent years. We plan to present translational data in the first half of 2021 at an appropriate forum and long-term two-year clinical data from the OLE in the second half of 2021.

In January 2021, we presented a poster at the 2021 Transplantation & Cellular Therapy Meeting an innovative testing solution that enables detection and quantification of non-engineered allogeneic T-cell therapies for use in ATA188 clinical development.

We initiated a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ATA188 in patients with PMS using the cohort 3 dose and enrolled the first patient in June 2020. This study was previously designated as Phase 1b and, based on recent program changes, it is now designated as a Phase 2. We discussed updates to the design of the RCT study with the FDA in January 2021 and gained alignment on several points for the RCT, as well as potential registrational studies: (i) a disability improvement endpoint is appropriate, with the FDA articulating a preference for EDSS improvement; (ii) the criteria used to enroll the study population of SPMS and PPMS are appropriate; and (iii) the Phase 2 RCT should run for at least 12 months, and a properly conducted interim analysis is appropriate. We also submitted a protocol amendment to the FDA, increasing the number of patients to 80, changing the primary end point of the study to EDSS disability improvement and maintaining the biological and functional endpoints. We plan to continue discussions with the FDA about potential opportunities for accelerated development of ATA188. We plan to conduct an interim analysis to assess efficacy and safety in the first half of 2022 and following the interim analysis, we expect to complete planned enrollment of the Phase 2 RCT in the first half of 2022. Based on the most recent data from the Phase 1a portion of the study, which shows a higher proportion of patients showing sustained EDSS improvements and a consistent safety profile over 15 months, we have selected the cohort 4 dose for enrollment in the Phase 2 RCT. In addition to measuring change in disability measures compared to baseline, especially SDI over time, the study also includes multiple measures of patients’ function as well as various biomarkers.

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CAR T Programs

Our current CAR T pipeline is as follows:

AML: acute myeloid leukemia; DNR: Dominant Negative Receptor

ATA2271/ATA3271

Our next-generation CAR T immunotherapy programs include autologous ATA2271 and allogeneic ATA3271 targeting mesothelin, which is a tumor antigen expressed on a number of solid tumors including mesothelioma, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, non-small cell lung cancer and other tumors over-expressing mesothelin. ATA2271 is designed to improve efficacy persistence, and durability of response versus CD28/CD3z-based CARs by using a novel 1XX CAR co-stimulatory signaling domain and cell intrinsic checkpoint inhibition technology with a PD-1 dominant negative receptor (DNR).

In 2018, we entered into several agreements to expand our collaboration with MSK to the development of CAR T immunotherapies, with a license in May 2018 related to multiple collaboration targets and a license in December 2018 related to our next-generation CAR T program targeting mesothelin. Under these CAR T agreements, we agreed to use commercially reasonable efforts to develop, obtain regulatory approval and, if approved, commercialize certain collaboration targets and to make certain milestone and royalty payments.

Data from investigational new drug (IND) enabling studies for ATA2271 were presented at the American Association for Cancer Research (AACR) Virtual Meeting II in June 2020. These data support the first application of the combination of 1XX co-stimulatory domain and cell intrinsic checkpoint inhibition technology with a PD-1 DNR that are associated with less cell exhaustion, improvements in functional persistence, serial cell killing and in vivo efficacy, which was maintained through multiple tumor re-challenges when compared with first-generation CD28/CD3z-based mesothelin CAR. The FDA accepted the IND application submitted by our collaborators at MSK in August 2020, and in September 2020, MSK initiated an open-label, single-arm Phase 1 clinical study of ATA2271 for patients with advanced mesothelioma. MSK has enrolled several patients into this study and we expect first Phase 1 data from this study to be presented in the fourth quarter of 2021.

We are also developing and have initiated IND-enabling studies for ATA3271, an off-the-shelf, allogeneic CAR T therapy targeting mesothelin using a PD-1 DNR and 1XX CAR co-stimulatory signaling domain through our EBV T-cell platform, and we expect to file the IND in the second half of 2022. Preclinical data for ATA3271 demonstrates potent anti-tumor activity, functional persistence and significant survival benefit with no evidence of allocytotoxicity in vivo, suggesting that allogeneic MSLN-CAR-engineered EBV T cells are a promising approach for the treatment of MSLN-positive cancers. These data were presented at the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC) 35^th Anniversary Annual Meeting in November 2020.

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In December 2020, we entered into the Bayer License Agreement pursuant to which we granted to Bayer an exclusive, field-limited license under the applicable patents and know-how owned or controlled by us and our affiliates covering or related to ATA2271 and ATA3271. See section ‘Terms of Certain License and Research and Development Collaboration Agreements’ below for additional details.

ATA3219

We are also developing ATA3219, an off-the-shelf, allogeneic CD19 CAR T immunotherapy targeting B-cell malignancies as a potential best-in-class therapy without the need for TCR gene editing, using our next-generation 1XX CAR co-stimulatory domain and EBV T-cell platform.

In February 2020, an academic off-the-shelf, allogeneic CD19 CAR T clinical study using an allogeneic EBV T-cell construct and CD28/CD3z co-stimulatory domain for patients with relapsed/refractory B-cell malignancies was presented at the 2020 Transplantation and Cellular Therapy (TCT) Meetings. Findings from this study provided initial clinical proof-of-principle that an EBV T-cell platform has the potential to generate off-the-shelf, allogeneic CAR T immunotherapies with high response rates, durable responses and low risk of toxicity that can be rapidly delivered to patients.

Preclinical data for ATA3219 demonstrate functional persistence, polyfunctional phenotype and efficient targeting of CD19-expressing tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo. An abstract detailing this ATA3219 preclinical data was presented at the 62^nd ASH Annual Meeting and Exposition in December 2020.

We had a pre-IND meeting with the FDA in October 2020, where we received feedback to guide the IND filing for ATA3219. We have initiated IND-enabling studies and plan to submit an IND for ATA3219 for patients with B-cell malignancies in the fourth quarter of 2021 or first quarter of 2022.

Additional Programs and Platform Expansion Activities

In addition to the prioritized programs described above, we have a number of preclinical programs. For example, in August 2018, we entered into a strategic collaboration with Moffitt. As part of this relationship, we agreed to collaborate with Moffitt to develop multi-targeted CAR T immunotherapies designed to address cancers with diverse cell types that often become resistant to treatment, such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML) (ATA2321) and B-cell malignancies (ATA2431), and to make certain milestone and royalty payments associated with the collaboration targets. In addition, the collaboration includes the use of a novel CAR T intracellular co-stimulatory domain that may improve CAR T proliferation when responding to an appropriate antigen and enhance CAR T persistence by reducing T-cell exhaustion. In addition to our ATA188 program with QIMR, we are also collaborating with QIMR on the development of ATA368 for patients with human papillomavirus (HPV) associated cancers.

We believe our platform will have utility beyond the current set of targets to which it has been directed. We continue to evaluate additional product candidates, including those derived from collaborations with our partners. We expect to further research and develop additional cellular therapies, which may include T-cell programs targeted against other antigens as well as engineered T-cell immunotherapies such as CAR T-cell programs. We believe that viral antigens are well suited to adoptive immunotherapy given that people with normal immune systems are able to mount robust responses to these viral targets, but immunocompromised patients and some cancer patients are not. We also continue to evaluate opportunities to license or acquire additional product candidates or technologies to enhance our existing platform.

Competition

The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by rapidly advancing technologies, intense competition and a strong emphasis on proprietary products. We face competition from numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology enterprises, as well as from academic institutions, government agencies and private and public research institutions for our current product candidates. Some of these competitors or potential competitors have significantly greater established presences in the market, financial resources and technical expertise than we do. Our commercial opportunities will be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products that are safer, more effective, have fewer side effects or are less expensive than any products that we may develop.

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Should any of our T-cell product candidates be approved for use, we will face substantial competition. In addition to the current standard of care for patients, commercial and academic clinical studies are being pursued by a number of parties in the field of immunotherapy. Early results from these studies have fueled continued interest in T-cell immunotherapy. In addition, if approved, our T-cell programs would compete with currently marketed drugs and therapies used for treatment of the indications we are addressing, and potentially with product candidates currently in development for the same indications.

EBV+ PTLD

There are currently no FDA- or EMA-approved products for the treatment of EBV+ PTLD. However, some marketed products and therapies are used off-label in the treatment of EBV+ PTLD, such as rituximab and combination chemotherapy regimens. In addition, a number of companies and academic institutions are developing product candidates for EBV+ PTLD and other EBV-driven diseases including: Viracta Therapeutics, Inc., which is conducting a Phase 1b/2 clinical study for nanatinostat (formerly named tractinostat, or VRx-3996) in combination with antiviral drug valganciclovir in relapsed/refractory EBV+ lymphomas; AlloVir (formerly known as ViraCyte), which has completed a Phase 2 clinical study for Viralym-M (ALVR105), an allogeneic, multi-virus T-cell product that targets six viruses in allogeneic HSCT recipients with ≥1 treatment-refractory infection, including EBV, and is planning to initiate several Phase 3 studies for CMV, AdV and Virus-Associated Hemorrhagic-Cystitis, as well as a Phase 1b/2 proof of concept trial for the prevention of BKV, CMV, AdV, EBV, HHV06 and JCV; and Tessa Therapeutics Pte Ltd., which has a Phase 2 autologous and preclinical allogeneic CD30-CAR-T product candidate being evaluated in CD30+ lymphomas.

Multiple Sclerosis

Competition in the MS market is high with at least 20 therapies, including four generics or bioequivalents, approved in the U.S. and EU for the treatment of various forms of MS, including clinically isolated syndrome, relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), secondary progressive MS (SPMS) and primary progressive MS (PPMS).  There are many competitors in the MS market, including major multi-national fully-integrated pharmaceutical companies and established biotechnology companies.  Most recently, Kesimpta^® (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody), marketed by Novartis, was approved in the U.S. for the treatment of relapsing forms of MS, and a decision for its approval for treatment of the same indication in the EU is expected in the first half of 2021. Johnson & Johnson has completed Phase 3 studies of its sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1P1) modulator, ponesimod, and has sought regulatory approval also for relapsing forms of MS in the U.S. and EU.

There are numerous development candidates in Phase 3 studies for both relapsing and/or progressive forms of MS and additional novel agents could be approved in either or both indications in the future including TG Therapeutics’ anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody ublituximab, EMD Serono’s Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor, evobrutinib, Roche’s BTK inhibitor, fenebrutinib, Sanofi’s BTK inhibitor, SAR442168 and AB Science’s tyrosine kinase inhibitor, masitinib. Medicinova is planning to initiate a Phase 3 study of its PDE inhibitor, ibudilast (MN166) in non-active SPMS.

CAR T Program

There are currently four autologous CAR T therapies approved in the U.S. and/or EU: Novartis’ Kymriah^® (tisagenlecleucel), Gilead/Kite’s Yescarta^® (axicabtagene ciloleucel) and Tecartus^TM (brexucabtagene autoleucel) and Bristol-Myers Squibb’s Breyanzi^® (lisocabtagene maraleucel). Bristol-Myers Squibb has filed a BLA to the U.S. FDA for idecabtagene vicleucel with bluebird bio. There are many CAR-mediated cell therapies in development, and, although the majority are autologous, they include allogeneic and off-the-shelf cell therapies. There are multiple allogeneic CAR platforms being developed with differences in approaches to minimize instances of donor cells recognizing the patient’s body as foreign or rejection of the donor cells by the patient’s body. These approaches include the use of gene-editing to remove or inhibit the TCR and the use of cell types without a TCR. The majority of clinical stage allogeneic CAR programs utilize alpha beta T cells as the cell type and gene editing of the T-cell receptor and HLA as the preferred technology approach, however, other strategies are also in development. Depending on the diseases that we target in the future, we may face competition from both autologous and allogeneic CAR therapies and other modalities (e.g., small molecules, antibodies) in the indication of interest.

Terms of Certain License and Research and Development Collaboration Agreements

Out-license

Bayer Research, Development and License Agreement

On December 4, 2020, we entered into the Bayer License Agreement, pursuant to which we granted to Bayer an exclusive, field-limited license under the applicable patents and know-how owned or controlled by us and our affiliates covering or related to ATA2271 and ATA3271 (the Licensed Products), in each case, targeting mesothelin.

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Under the terms of the Bayer License Agreement, we will be responsible at our cost for all mutually agreed preclinical and clinical activities for ATA2271 through the first in human Phase 1 clinical study in collaboration with MSK, following which Bayer will be responsible for the further development of ATA2271 at its cost. Bayer will be responsible for the development of ATA3271, except for certain mutually agreed preclinical, translational, manufacturing and supply chain activities to be performed by us relating to ATA3271, in each case at Bayer’s cost. Bayer will also be solely responsible for commercializing the Licensed Products at its cost.

In December 2020, we received an upfront cash payment of $45.0 million from Bayer for the exclusive license grant, net of applicable withholding taxes, which we believe are recoverable, and an additional $15.0 million upfront reimbursement payment for certain research and process development activities to be performed by us. We are also entitled to receive (i) up to an additional $5.0 million for additional, specified translational activities under the Bayer License Agreement and (ii) an aggregate of up to $610.0 million in milestone payments upon achieving certain development, regulatory and commercial milestones relating to the Licensed Products. In addition, we are eligible to receive from Bayer tiered royalties at percentages up to low double digits on worldwide net product sales of the Licensed Products on a country-by-country and product-by-product basis until the later of 12 years after the first commercial sale in such country or the expiration of specified patent rights in such country, subject to certain reductions and aggregate minimum floors. We also granted Bayer a time limited, non-exclusive right to negotiate a license to additional Atara CAR-T product candidates if we decide to pursue an out-license of such CAR-T product candidates. Under the terms of the Bayer License Agreement, we are currently negotiating a separate manufacturing and supply agreement with Bayer for the supply of allogenic mesothelin-directed CAR T-cell therapies for clinical trials.

In-license

MSK License Agreements

In June 2015, we entered into a license agreement with MSK, under which MSK granted us a worldwide, exclusive license to certain patent rights, know-how and a library of T cells and cell lines, to research, develop, manufacture and commercialize three clinical stage T-cell therapies. We are obligated to make milestone payments of up to $33.0 million to MSK based on achievement of specified regulatory and sales-related milestones, as well as mid single-digit percentage tiered royalty payments based on future sales of products resulting from the development of the licensed product candidates, if any. In addition, under certain circumstances, we must make certain minimum annual royalty payments to MSK, which are creditable against earned royalties owed for the same annual period. We are also obligated to pay a low double-digit percentage of any consideration we receive for sublicensing the licensed rights. The license agreement expires on a licensed product-by-product and country-by-country basis, on the latest of: (i) expiration of the last licensed patent rights related to a licensed product, (ii) expiration of any market exclusivity period granted by law with respect to a licensed product, and (iii) a specified number of years after the first commercial sale of the licensed product in each country. Upon expiration of the license agreement, Atara will retain non-exclusive rights to the licensed products.

In May and December 2018, we licensed additional technology from MSK. We are obligated to make additional milestone payments based on achievement of specified development, regulatory and sales-related milestones as well as mid-single-digit percentage tiered royalty payments based on future sales of products resulting from the development of the licensed product candidates, if any.

QIMR Berghofer License Agreements

In October 2015, we entered into an exclusive license agreement and a research and development collaboration agreement with QIMR Berghofer. Under the terms of the license agreement, we obtained an exclusive, worldwide license to develop and commercialize allogeneic T-cell therapy programs utilizing technology and know-how developed by QIMR Berghofer. In September 2016, the exclusive license agreement and research and development collaboration agreement were amended and restated. Under the amended and restated agreements, we obtained an exclusive and worldwide license to develop and commercialize additional T-cell programs, as well as the option to license additional technology. We exercised this option in June 2018. We further amended and restated our license agreement and research and development collaboration agreements with QIMR Berghofer in August 2019 to terminate our license to certain rights related to cytomegalovirus (CMV). In addition, we further amended and restated our license agreement and research and development collaboration agreements with QIMR Berghofer in August 2020 to terminate our license to certain rights related to BK polyomavirus and JC polyomavirus. We refer to our August 2020 third amended and restated license agreement with QIMR Berghofer as the QIMR License Agreement and our August 2020 third amended and restated research and development collaboration agreement with QIMR Berghofer as our QIMR Collaboration Agreement.

The QIMR License Agreement provides for various milestone and low to mid single-digit royalty payments to QIMR Berghofer based on future product sales, if any. Under the terms of the QIMR Collaboration Agreement, we are required to reimburse the cost of agreed-upon development activities related to programs developed under the collaboration. The QIMR Collaboration Agreement also provides for various milestone payments to QIMR Berghofer based on the achievement of certain developmental and regulatory milestones.

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We have the right at any time to terminate the QIMR License Agreement, at will, by providing written notice of termination to QIMR Berghofer and paying QIMR Berghofer a break-up fee equal to 50 percent of the amount of the next milestone payment that would be payable to QIMR Berghofer. QIMR Berghofer or we may terminate the QIMR Collaboration Agreement at any time if either party determines that the collaboration is no longer academically, technically, or commercially feasible by giving the other party 30-day written notice. In the event of a material breach of either agreement, QIMR Berghofer or we may terminate the agreement if the breaching party does not cure such breach within a specified period.

Intellectual Property

Our commercial success depends in part on our ability to obtain and maintain proprietary protection for our product candidates, to operate without infringing on the proprietary rights of others and to prevent others from infringing our proprietary rights. We seek to protect our proprietary position by, among other methods, filing U.S. and non-U.S. patent applications related to our proprietary technology, inventions and improvements that are important to the development and implementation of our business. We also rely on trademarks, trade secrets, know-how, continuing technological innovation and potential in-licensing opportunities to develop and maintain our proprietary position. Some of patents, trademarks, trade secrets, know-how and other intellectual property rights we rely on are owned by us and others are in-licensed from our partners. When we refer to “our” technologies, inventions, patents, patent applications or other intellectual property rights, we are referring to both the rights that we own or possess as well as those that we in-license. Additionally, we expect to benefit from a variety of statutory frameworks in the U.S., Europe and other countries that relate to the regulation of biosimilar molecules and orphan drug status. These statutory frameworks provide certain periods of regulatory exclusivity for qualifying molecules. See “Government Regulation.”

Patents

We seek composition-of-matter and/or associated method patents, including method-of-treatment patents, for each of our product candidates in key therapeutic areas. The U.S. patent system permits the filing of provisional and non-provisional patent applications. A provisional patent application is not examined for patentability by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), and automatically expires 12 months after its filing date. As a result, a provisional patent application cannot mature into an issued patent. Provisional patent applications are often used, among other things, to establish an early effective filing date for a later-filed non-provisional patent application. A non-provisional patent application is examined by the USPTO and can mature into a patent once the USPTO determines that the claimed invention meets the standards of patentability.

Individual patents extend for varying periods of time depending on the date of filing of the patent application, the priority date claimed, and the legal term of patents as determined by the applicable law in the countries in which those patents are obtained. Generally, patents issued from applications filed in the U.S. are effective for 20 years from the earliest non-provisional filing date. In addition, in certain instances, a patent term can be extended to recapture a portion of the term effectively lost as a result of the FDA regulatory review period; however, the restoration period cannot be longer than five years and the total patent term including the restoration period must not exceed 14 years following FDA approval. Additionally, patent term adjustments can extend term to account for certain delays by the USPTO during prosecution before that office. The duration of non-U.S. patents varies in accordance with provisions of applicable local law, but typically, the life of a non-U.S. patent is 20 years from the earliest international filing date, not inclusive of any patent term extension that may be available. The actual protection afforded by a patent varies on a product-by-product basis, from country to country and depends upon many factors, including the type of patent, the scope of its coverage, the availability of extensions of patent term, the availability of legal remedies in a particular country and the validity and enforceability of the patent.

National and international patent laws concerning protein-based biologics such as our products remain highly unsettled. No consistent policy regarding the patent-eligibility or the breadth of claims allowed in patents in this field has emerged to date among the U.S., Europe or other countries. Changes in either the patent laws or in interpretations of patent laws in the U.S. or other countries can diminish our ability to protect our inventions and enforce our intellectual property rights. Accordingly, we cannot predict the breadth or enforceability of claims that may be granted in our patents or in third-party patents. The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by extensive intellectual property litigation. Our ability to maintain and solidify our proprietary position for our product candidates and technology will depend on our success in obtaining effective claims for our patents and enforcing those claims once a patent is granted. We do not know whether any of our patent applications will result in the issuance of any patents. Our issued patents may be challenged, invalidated or circumvented, and the rights granted under any issued patents may not provide us with sufficient protection or competitive advantages against competitors with similar technology. Furthermore, our competitors may independently develop and commercialize similar drugs or duplicate our technology, business model or strategy without infringing our patents. Because of the extensive time required for clinical development and regulatory review of any drug we may develop from our product candidates, it is possible that, before any of our drugs can be commercialized, any related patent may expire or remain in force for only a short period following commercialization, thereby reducing any advantage of any such patent.

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Our global patent estate consists of both solely-owned and in-licensed patents and patent applications, is directed to compositions of matter and/or associated methods, including methods of treatment, and consists of 39 patent families having a total of more than 274 issued patents or patent applications. Our patents and patent applications (if issued) are expected to expire between 2023 and 2041, not inclusive of any patent term extension that may be available in any associated jurisdiction.

Trade Secrets

In addition to patents, we rely upon unpatented trade secrets and know-how and continuing technological innovation to develop and maintain our competitive position. We seek to protect our proprietary information, in part, using confidentiality agreements with our commercial partners, collaborators, employees and consultants and invention assignment agreements with our employees. These agreements are designed to protect our proprietary information and, in the case of the invention assignment agreements, to grant us ownership of technologies that are developed by an employee. These agreements may be breached, and we may not have adequate remedies for any such breach or any unauthorized disclosure of our proprietary information. In addition, our trade secrets may otherwise become known or be independently discovered by competitors. To the extent that our commercial partners, collaborators, employees and consultants use intellectual property owned by others in their work for us, disputes may arise as to the rights in related or resulting know-how and inventions.

Trademarks

We also rely upon trademarks to develop and maintain our competitive position, and we continue to pursue and obtain trademark rights relating to our business. We have a vigorous global program of trademark registration and enforcement to maintain and strengthen the value of our trademarks and prevent the unauthorized use of those trademarks. Our global trademark portfolio consists of six different trademark families comprised of more than 90 registrations and pending applications.

Government Regulation and Product Approval

As a biopharmaceutical company that operates in the United States, we are subject to extensive regulation. Our T-cell immunotherapies, if approved, will be products regulated as biologics. With this classification, commercial production of our products will need to occur in registered facilities in compliance with current good manufacturing practice (cGMP) for biologics. The FDA categorizes human cell- or tissue-based products as either minimally manipulated or more than minimally manipulated and has determined that more than minimally manipulated products require clinical trials to demonstrate product safety and efficacy and the submission of a BLA for marketing authorization. Our product candidates are considered more than minimally manipulated and will require evaluation in clinical trials and the submission and approval of a BLA before we can market them.

Government authorities in the United States (at the federal, state and local level) and in other countries extensively regulate, among other things, the research, development, testing, manufacturing, quality control, approval, labeling, packaging, storage, record-keeping, promotion, advertising, distribution, post-approval monitoring and reporting, marketing and export and import of biopharmaceutical products such as those we are developing. Our product candidates must be approved by the FDA before they may be legally marketed in the U.S. and by the appropriate foreign regulatory agency before they may be legally marketed in foreign countries. Generally, our activities in other countries will be subject to regulation that is similar in nature and scope as that imposed in the U.S., although there can be important differences. Additionally, some significant aspects of regulation in Europe are addressed in a centralized way, but country-specific regulation remains essential in many respects. The process for obtaining regulatory marketing approvals and the subsequent compliance with appropriate federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources.

U.S. Product Development Process

In the U.S., the FDA regulates pharmaceutical and biological products under the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), the Public Health Service Act (PHSA), and their implementing regulations. The process of obtaining regulatory approvals and the subsequent compliance with appropriate federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources. Failure to comply with the applicable U.S. requirements at any time during the product development process, approval process or after approval, may subject an applicant to administrative or judicial sanctions. FDA sanctions could include, among other actions, refusal to approve pending applications, withdrawal of an approval, a clinical hold, warning letters, product recalls or withdrawals from the market, product seizures, total or partial suspension of production or distribution injunctions, fines, refusals of government contracts, restitution, disgorgement or civil or criminal penalties. Any agency or judicial enforcement action could have a material adverse effect on us. The process required by the FDA before a biological product may be marketed in the U.S. generally involves the following:

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Before testing any biological product candidate, including our product candidates, in humans, the product candidate enters the preclinical testing stage. Preclinical tests, also referred to as nonclinical studies, include laboratory evaluations of product chemistry, toxicity and formulation, as well as animal studies to assess the potential safety and activity of the product candidate. The conduct of the preclinical tests must comply with federal regulations and requirements including GLPs. The clinical trial sponsor must submit the results of the preclinical tests, together with manufacturing information, analytical data, any available clinical data or literature and a proposed clinical protocol, to the FDA as part of the IND. Some preclinical testing may continue even after the IND is submitted. The IND automatically becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the FDA, unless the FDA raises concerns or questions regarding the proposed clinical trials and places the trial on a clinical hold within that 30-day time period. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical trial can begin. The FDA may also impose clinical holds on a biological product candidate at any time before or during clinical trials due to safety concerns or non-compliance. If the FDA imposes a clinical hold, trials may not recommence without FDA authorization and then only under terms authorized by the FDA. Accordingly, we cannot be sure that submission of an IND will result in the FDA allowing clinical trials to begin, or that, once begun, issues will not arise that suspend or terminate such trials.

Clinical trials involve the administration of the biological product candidate to patients under the supervision of qualified investigators, generally physicians not employed by or under the trial sponsor’s control. Clinical trials are conducted under protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the clinical trial, dosing procedures, subject selection and exclusion criteria, and the parameters to be used to monitor subject safety, including stopping rules that assure a clinical trial will be stopped if certain adverse events should occur. Each protocol and any amendments to the protocol must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. Clinical trials must be conducted and monitored in accordance with the FDA’s regulations comprising the GCP requirements, including the requirement that all research patients provide informed consent. Further, each clinical trial must be reviewed and approved by an independent IRB at or servicing each institution at which the clinical trial will be conducted. An IRB is charged with protecting the welfare and rights of trial participants and considers such items as whether the risks to individuals participating in the clinical trials are minimized and are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits. The IRB also approves the form and content of the informed consent document that must be signed by each clinical trial subject or his or her legal representative and must monitor the clinical trial until completed. Some studies also include oversight by an independent group of qualified experts organized by the clinical study sponsor, known as a data safety monitoring board, which provides authorization for whether or not a study may move forward at designated check points based on access to certain data from the study and may halt the clinical trial if it determines that there is an unacceptable safety risk for subjects or other grounds, such as no demonstration of efficacy. There are also requirements governing the reporting of ongoing clinical studies and clinical study results to public registries.

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Human clinical trials are typically conducted in three sequential phases that may overlap or be combined:

Post-approval clinical trials, sometimes referred to as Phase 4 clinical trials, may be conducted after initial marketing approval. These clinical trials are used to gain additional experience from the treatment of patients in the intended therapeutic indication, particularly for long-term safety follow-up. During all phases of clinical development, regulatory agencies require extensive monitoring and auditing of all clinical activities, clinical data, and clinical trial investigators. Annual progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials must be submitted to the FDA. Written IND safety reports must be promptly submitted to the FDA and to investigators for serious and unexpected adverse events, findings from other studies, laboratory animal testing or in vitro testing that suggest a significant risk for human patients, or any clinically important increase in the rate of a serious suspected adverse reaction over the rate listed in the protocol or investigator brochure. The sponsor must submit an IND safety report within 15 calendar days after the sponsor determines that the information qualifies for reporting. The sponsor also must notify the FDA of any unexpected fatal or life-threatening suspected adverse reaction within seven calendar days after the sponsor’s initial receipt of the information. Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical trials may not be completed successfully within any specified period, if at all. The FDA or the sponsor or its data safety monitoring board may suspend or terminate a clinical trial at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the research patients are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk, including risks inferred from other unrelated immunotherapy trials. Similarly, an IRB can suspend or terminate approval of a clinical trial at its institution if the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with the IRB’s requirements or if the biological product has been associated with unexpected serious harm to patients.

Concurrently with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional studies and must also develop additional information about the physical characteristics of the biological product as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. To help reduce the risk of the introduction of adventitious agents with use of biological products, the PHSA emphasizes the importance of manufacturing control for products whose attributes cannot be precisely defined. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product candidate and, among other things, the sponsor must develop methods for testing the identity, strength, quality, potency and purity of the final biological product. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested, and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the biological product candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf life.

U.S. Review and Approval Processes

After the completion of clinical trials of a biological product, FDA approval of a BLA must be obtained before commercial marketing of the biological product. The BLA submission must include results of product development, laboratory and animal studies, human trials, information on the manufacture and composition of the product, proposed labeling and other relevant information. The testing and approval processes require substantial time and effort and there can be no assurance that the FDA will accept the BLA for filing and, even if filed, that any approval will be granted on a timely basis, if at all.

Under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, as amended (PDUFA), each BLA must be accompanied by a significant user fee. The FDA adjusts the PDUFA user fees on an annual basis. PDUFA also imposes an annual program fee for biological products. Fee waivers or reductions are available in certain circumstances, including a waiver of the application fee for the first application filed by a small business. Additionally, no user fees are assessed on BLAs for products designated as orphan drugs, unless the product also includes a non-orphan indication.

Within 60 days following submission of the application, the FDA reviews a BLA submission to determine if it is substantially complete before the agency accepts it for filing. The FDA may refuse to file any BLA that it deems incomplete or not properly reviewable at the time of submission and may request additional information. In this event, the BLA must be resubmitted with the additional information. The resubmitted application also is subject to review before the FDA accepts it for filing. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth substantive review of the BLA. The FDA reviews the BLA to determine, among other things, whether the proposed product is safe, potent, and/or effective for its intended use, and has an acceptable purity profile, and whether the product is being manufactured in accordance with cGMP to assure and preserve the product’s identity, safety, strength, quality, potency and purity. The FDA may refer applications for novel biological products or biological products that present difficult questions of safety or efficacy to an advisory committee, typically a panel that includes clinicians and other experts, for review, evaluation and a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making

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decisions. During the biological product approval process, the FDA also determines whether a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) is necessary to assure the safe use of the biological product. A REMS is a safety strategy to manage a known or potential serious risk associated with a medicine and to enable patients to have continued access to such medicines by managing their safe use, and could include medication guides, physician communication plans, or elements to assure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries and other risk minimization tools. If the FDA concludes a REMS is needed, the sponsor of the BLA must submit a proposed REMS. The FDA will not approve a BLA without a REMS, if required.

Before approving a BLA, the FDA will inspect the facilities at which the product is manufactured. The FDA will not approve the product unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. For immunotherapy products, the FDA also will not approve the product if the manufacturer is not in compliance with the GTPs, to the extent applicable. GTPs are FDA regulations and guidance documents that govern the methods used in, and the facilities and controls used for, the manufacture of human cells, tissue, and cellular and tissue-based products (HCT/Ps), which are human cells or tissue intended for implantation, transplant, infusion, or transfer into a human recipient. The primary intent of the GTP requirements is to ensure that cell and tissue-based products are manufactured in a manner designed to prevent the introduction, transmission and spread of communicable disease. FDA regulations also require tissue establishments to register and list their HCT/Ps with the FDA and, when applicable, to evaluate donors through screening and testing. Additionally, before approving a BLA, the FDA will typically inspect one or more clinical sites to assure that the clinical trials were conducted in compliance with IND trial requirements and GCP requirements. To assure cGMP, GTP and GCP compliance, an applicant must incur significant expenditure of time, money and effort in the areas of training, record keeping, production, and quality control.

Notwithstanding the submission of relevant data and information, the FDA may ultimately decide that the BLA does not satisfy its regulatory criteria for approval and deny approval. Data obtained from clinical trials are not always conclusive and the FDA may interpret data differently than we interpret the same data. If the agency decides not to approve the BLA in its present form, the FDA will issue a complete response letter that describes all of the specific deficiencies in the BLA identified by the FDA. The deficiencies identified may be minor, for example, requiring labeling changes, or major, for example, requiring additional clinical trials. Additionally, the complete response letter may include recommended actions that the applicant might take to place the application in a condition for approval. If a complete response letter is issued, the applicant may either resubmit the BLA, addressing all of the deficiencies identified in the letter, or withdraw the application.

If a product receives regulatory approval, the approval may be limited to specific diseases and dosages or the indications for use may otherwise be limited, which could restrict the commercial value of the product. Further, the FDA may require that certain contraindications, warnings or precautions be included in the product labeling. The FDA may impose restrictions and conditions on product distribution, prescribing, or dispensing in the form of a risk management plan, or otherwise limit the scope of any approval. In addition, the FDA may require post marketing clinical trials, sometimes referred to as Phase 4 clinical trials, designed to further assess a biological product’s safety and effectiveness, and testing and surveillance programs to monitor the safety of approved products that have been commercialized.

In addition, under the Pediatric Research Equity Act (PREA), a BLA or supplement to a BLA must contain data to assess the safety and effectiveness of the product for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. The FDA may grant deferrals for submission of data or full or partial waivers.

Orphan Drug Designation

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may grant orphan designation to a drug or biologic intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally a disease or condition that affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or more than 200,000 individuals in the U.S. and for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making available in the U.S. a drug or biologic for this type of disease or condition will be recovered from sales in the U.S. for that drug or biologic. Orphan drug designation must be requested before submitting a BLA. After the FDA grants orphan drug designation, the generic identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA. The orphan drug designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review or approval process.

If a product that has orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for the disease for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan product exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications, including a full BLA, to market the same biologic for the same indication for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan drug exclusivity. Orphan drug exclusivity does not prevent the FDA from approving a different drug or biologic for the same disease or condition, or the same drug or biologic for a different disease or condition. Among the other benefits of orphan drug designation are tax credits for certain research and a waiver of the BLA application user fee.

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A designated orphan drug may not receive orphan drug exclusivity if it is approved for a use that is broader than the indication for which it received orphan designation. In addition, exclusive marketing rights in the U.S. may be lost if the FDA later determines that the request for designation was materially defective or if the manufacturer is unable to assure sufficient quantities of the product to meet the needs of patients with the rare disease or condition.

Expedited Development and Review Programs

The FDA has a fast track program that is intended to expedite or facilitate the process for reviewing new products that meet certain criteria. Specifically, new products are eligible for fast track designation if they are intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical needs for the disease or condition. Fast track designation applies to the combination of the product and the specific indication for which it is being studied. Unique to a fast track product, the FDA may consider for review sections of the BLA on a rolling basis before the complete application is submitted, if the sponsor provides a schedule for the submission of the sections of the BLA, the FDA agrees to accept sections of the BLA and determines that the schedule is acceptable, and the sponsor pays any required user fees upon submission of the first section of the BLA.

Any product, submitted to the FDA for approval, including a product with a fast track designation, may also be eligible for other types of FDA programs intended to expedite development and review, such as priority review and accelerated approval. A product is eligible for priority review if it has the potential to provide safe and effective therapy where no satisfactory alternative therapy exists or a significant improvement in the treatment, diagnosis or prevention of a disease compared to marketed products. The FDA will attempt to direct additional resources to the evaluation of an application for a new product designated for priority review in an effort to facilitate the review. Additionally, a product may be eligible for accelerated approval. Products studied for their safety and effectiveness in treating serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions may receive accelerated approval upon a determination that the product has an effect on a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict clinical benefit, or on a clinical endpoint that can be measured earlier than irreversible morbidity or mortality, that is reasonably likely to predict an effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit, taking into account the severity, rarity, or prevalence of the condition and the availability or lack of alternative treatments. As a condition of approval, the FDA may require that a sponsor of a drug or biological product receiving accelerated approval perform adequate and well-controlled post-marketing clinical studies. In addition, the FDA currently requires as a condition for accelerated approval pre-approval of promotional materials, which could adversely impact the timing of the commercial launch of the product.

Regenerative Medicine Advanced Therapy (RMAT) designation was established by FDA in 2017 to facilitate an efficient development program for, and expedite review of, any drug that meets the following criteria: (1) it qualifies as a RMAT, which is defined as a cell therapy, therapeutic tissue engineering product, human cell and tissue product, or any combination product using such therapies or products, with limited exceptions; (2) it is intended to treat, modify, reverse, or cure a serious or life-threatening disease or condition; and (3) preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug has the potential to address unmet medical needs for such a disease or condition. RMAT designation provides potential benefits that include more frequent meetings with FDA to discuss the development plan for the product candidate and eligibility for rolling review and priority review. Products granted RMAT designation may also be eligible for accelerated approval on the basis of a surrogate or intermediate endpoint reasonably likely to predict long-term clinical benefit, or reliance upon data obtained from a meaningful number of sites, including through expansion to additional sites. Once approved, when appropriate, the FDA can permit fulfillment of post-approval requirements under accelerated approval through the submission of clinical evidence, clinical studies, patient registries, or other sources of real world evidence such as electronic health records; through the collection of larger confirmatory datasets; or through post-approval monitoring of all patients treated with the therapy prior to approval.

Breakthrough therapy designation is also intended to expedite the development and review of products that treat serious or life-threatening conditions. The designation by FDA requires preliminary clinical evidence that a product candidate, alone or in combination with other drugs and biologics, demonstrates substantial improvement over currently available therapy on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. Breakthrough therapy designation comes with all of the benefits of fast track designation, which means that the sponsor may file sections of the BLA for review on a rolling basis if certain conditions are satisfied, including an agreement with FDA on the proposed schedule for submission of portions of the application and the payment of applicable user fees before the FDA may initiate a review.

Fast Track designation, priority review, RMAT and breakthrough therapy designation do not change the standards for approval but may expedite the development or approval process.

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Post-Approval Requirements

Any products for which we receive FDA approvals are subject to continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, record-keeping requirements, reporting of adverse experiences with the product, providing the FDA with updated safety and efficacy information, product sampling and distribution requirements, and complying with FDA promotion and advertising requirements, which include, among others, standards for direct-to-consumer advertising, restrictions on promoting products for uses or in patient populations that are not described in the product’s approved uses (known as “off-label use”), limitations on industry-sponsored scientific and educational activities, and requirements for promotional activities involving the internet. Although a physician may prescribe a legally available product for an off-label use, if the physician deems such product to be appropriate in his/her professional medical judgment, a manufacturer may not market or promote off-label uses. However, it is permissible to share in certain circumstances truthful and not misleading information that is consistent with the product’s approved labeling.

In addition, quality control and manufacturing procedures must continue to conform to applicable manufacturing requirements after approval to ensure the long-term stability of the product. cGMP regulations require among other things, quality control and quality assurance as well as the corresponding maintenance of records and documentation and the obligation to investigate and correct any deviations from cGMP. Manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacture and distribution of approved products are required to register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies, and are subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA and certain state agencies for compliance with cGMP and other laws. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money, and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain cGMP compliance. Discovery of problems with a product after approval may result in restrictions on a product, manufacturer, or holder of an approved BLA, including, among other things, recall or withdrawal of the product from the market. In addition, changes to the manufacturing process are strictly regulated, and depending on the significance of the change, may require prior FDA approval before being implemented. Other types of changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications and claims, are also subject to further FDA review and approval.

The FDA also may require post-marketing testing, known as Phase 4 testing, and surveillance to monitor the effects of an approved product. Discovery of previously unknown problems with a product or the failure to comply with applicable FDA requirements can have negative consequences, including adverse publicity, judicial or administrative enforcement, warning letters from the FDA, mandated corrective advertising or communications with doctors, and civil or criminal penalties, among others. Newly discovered or developed safety or effectiveness data may require changes to a product’s approved labeling, including the addition of new warnings and contraindications, and also may require the implementation of other risk management measures. Also, new government requirements, including those resulting from new legislation, may be established, or the FDA’s policies may change, which could delay or prevent regulatory approval of our products under development.

U.S. Marketing Exclusivity

The Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act (BPCIA), amended the PHSA to authorize the FDA to approve similar versions of innovative biologics, commonly known as biosimilars. A competitor seeking approval of a biosimilar must file an application to establish its molecule as highly similar to an approved innovator biologic, among other requirements. The BPCIA, however, bars the FDA from approving biosimilar applications for 12 years after an innovator biological product receives initial marketing approval. This 12-year period of data exclusivity may be extended by six months, for a total of 12.5 years, if the FDA requests that the innovator company conduct pediatric clinical investigations of the product.

Depending upon the timing, duration and specifics of the FDA approval of the use of our product candidates, some of our U.S. patents, if granted, may be eligible for limited patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, commonly referred to as the Hatch-Waxman Act. The Hatch-Waxman Act permits a patent restoration term of up to five years, as compensation for patent term lost during product development and the FDA regulatory review process. However, patent term restoration cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the product’s approval date. The patent term restoration period is generally one-half the time between the effective date of an IND and the submission date of a BLA plus the time between the submission date of a BLA and the approval of that application. Only one patent applicable to an approved product is eligible for the extension and the application for the extension must be submitted prior to the expiration of the patent. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, in consultation with the FDA, reviews and approves the application for any patent term extension or restoration. In the future, we may intend to apply for restoration of patent term for one of our currently owned or licensed patents to add patent life beyond its current expiration date, depending on the expected length of the clinical trials and other factors involved in the filing of the relevant BLA.

Pediatric exclusivity is another type of regulatory market exclusivity in the United States. Pediatric exclusivity, if granted, adds six months to existing exclusivity periods and patent terms. This six-month exclusivity, which runs from the end of other exclusivity protection or patent term, may be granted based on the voluntary completion of a pediatric trial in accordance with an FDA-issued “Written Request” for such a trial.

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Reimbursement

In both domestic and foreign markets, sales and reimbursement of any approved products will depend, in part, on the extent to which the costs of such products will be covered by third-party payors, such as government health programs, commercial insurance and managed healthcare organizations. Third-party payors determine which medications they will cover and establish reimbursement levels. There may be significant delays in obtaining coverage and reimbursement for newly approved drugs, and coverage may be more limited than the purposes for which the drug is approved by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Interim reimbursement levels for new drugs, if applicable, may also not be sufficient to cover our costs and may only be temporary. Reimbursement rates may vary according to the use of the drug and the clinical setting in which it is used, may be based on reimbursement levels already set for lower cost drugs and may be incorporated into existing payments for other services. Net prices for drugs may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or private payors and by any future relaxation of laws that presently restrict imports of drugs from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the U.S. Coverage and reimbursement policies for drug products can differ significantly from payor to payor as there is no uniform policy of coverage and reimbursement for drug products among third-party payors in the U.S. Third-party payors in the U.S. often rely upon Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement policies. There may be significant delays in obtaining coverage and reimbursement as the process of determining coverage and reimbursement is often time consuming and costly which will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage or adequate reimbursement will be obtained. It is difficult to predict at this time what government authorities and third-party payors will decide with respect to coverage and reimbursement for our drug products.

These third-party payors are increasingly challenging the prices charged for medical products and services and imposing controls to manage costs. The containment of healthcare costs has become a priority of federal and state governments and the prices of drugs have been a focus in this effort. Governments have shown significant interest in implementing cost-containment programs, including price controls, restrictions on reimbursement and requirements for substitution of generic products. For example, in the U.S. there have been several recent Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, reduce the cost of drugs under Medicare, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. Additionally, in May 2018, the Trump administration laid out a “Blueprint” to lower drug prices and reduce out of pocket costs of drugs that contained proposals to increase manufacturer competition, increase the negotiating power of certain federal healthcare programs, incentivize manufacturers to lower the list price of their products and reduce the out-of-pocket costs of drug products paid by consumers. Several final rules have been recently promulgated that seek to implement several of the Trump administration’s proposals. For example, on November 20, 2020, HHS finalized a regulation removing safe harbor protection for price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, either directly or through pharmacy benefit managers, unless the price reduction is required by law. The rule also creates a new safe harbor for price reductions reflected at the point-of-sale, as well as a safe harbor for certain fixed fee arrangements between pharmacy benefit managers and manufacturers. Further, on November 20, 2020, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) issued an interim final rule implementing President Trump’s Most Favored Nation executive order, which would tie Medicare Part B payments for certain physician-administered drugs to the lowest price paid in other economically advanced countries, effective January 1, 2021. On December 28, 2020, the United States District Court in Northern California issued a nationwide preliminary injunction against implementation of the interim final rule. However, it is unclear whether the Biden administration will work to reverse these measures or pursue similar policy initiatives. At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. Further, it is possible that additional governmental action is taken in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Within the U.S., if we obtain appropriate approval in the future to market any of our product candidates, we may seek approval and coverage for those products under Medicaid, Medicare and the Public Health Service (PHS), pharmaceutical pricing program and also seek to sell the products to federal agencies.

Medicaid is a joint federal and state program that is administered by the states for low income and disabled beneficiaries. Under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program, manufacturers are required to pay a rebate for each unit of product reimbursed by the state Medicaid programs. The amount of the rebate for each product is set by law and may be subject to an additional discount if certain pricing increases more than inflation.

Medicare is a federal program administered by the federal government that covers individuals age 65 and over as well as those with certain disabilities. Medicare Part D provides coverage to enrolled Medicare patients for self-administered drugs (i.e., drugs that do not need to be administered by a physician). Medicare Part D is administered by private prescription drug plans approved by the U.S. government and each drug plan establishes its own Medicare Part D formulary for prescription drug coverage and pricing, which the drug plan may modify from time-to-time.

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Medicare Part B covers most injectable drugs given in an in-patient setting, and some drugs administered by a licensed medical provider in hospital outpatient departments and doctors’ offices. Medicare Part B is administered by Medicare Administrative Contractors, which generally have the responsibility of making coverage decisions. Subject to certain payment adjustments and limits, Medicare generally pays for Part B covered drugs based on a percentage of manufacturer-reported average sales price.

Drug products are subject to discounted pricing when purchased by federal agencies via the Federal Supply Schedule (FSS). FSS participation is required for a drug product to be covered and paid for by certain federal agencies and for coverage under Medicaid, Medicare Part B and the PHS pharmaceutical pricing program. FSS pricing is negotiated periodically with the Department of Veterans Affairs. FSS pricing is intended to not exceed the price that a manufacturer charges its most-favored non-federal customer for its product. In addition, prices for drugs purchased by the Veterans Administration, Department of Defense (including drugs purchased by military personnel and dependents through the TRICARE retail pharmacy program), Coast Guard, and PHS are subject to a cap on pricing (known as the “federal ceiling price”) and may be subject to an additional discount if pricing increases more than inflation.

To maintain coverage of drugs under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program, manufacturers are required to extend discounts to certain purchasers under the PHS pharmaceutical pricing program. Purchasers eligible for discounts include hospitals that serve a disproportionate share of financially needy patients, community health clinics and other entities that receive health services grants from the PHS.

In March 2010, the U.S. Congress enacted the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act (collectively, the Affordable Care Act), which included changes to the coverage and payment for drug products under government health care programs. Since its enactment, there have been judicial and Congressional challenges to numerous elements of the Affordable Care Act, as well as efforts by both the executive and legislative branches of the federal government to repeal or replace certain aspects of the Affordable Care Act. For example, President Trump signed Executive Orders designed to eliminate the implementation of certain provisions of the Affordable Care Act or otherwise circumvent some of the requirements for health insurance mandated by the Affordable Care Act. In addition, the U.S. Congress has considered legislation that would repeal or repeal and replace all or part of the Affordable Care Act. While Congress has not passed comprehensive repeal legislation, it has enacted laws that modify certain provisions of the Affordable Care Act, such as removing penalties, starting January 1, 2019, for not complying with the Affordable Care Act’s individual mandate to carry health insurance, delaying the implementation of certain mandated fees, and increasing the point-of-sale discount that is owed by pharmaceutical manufacturers who participate in Medicare Part D. In December 2019, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit upheld a District Court ruling that the individual mandate was unconstitutional and remanded the case back to the Texas District Court to determine whether the remaining provisions of the Affordable Care Act are invalid as well. The U.S. Supreme Court is currently reviewing this case, but it is unknown when a decision will be reached. Although the U.S. Supreme Court has yet ruled on the constitutionality of the Affordable Care act, on January 28, 2021, President Biden issued an executive order to initiate a special enrollment period from February 15, 2021 through May 15, 2021 for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the Affordable Care Act marketplace. The executive order also instructs certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their existing policies and rules that limit access to healthcare, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the Affordable Care Act. It is unclear how the U.S. Supreme Court ruling, other such litigation, and the healthcare form measures of the Biden administration will impact the Affordable Care Act and our business.

U.S. Health Care Laws

Healthcare providers and third-party payors will play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of any product candidates for which we obtain regulatory approval. Our current and future arrangements with third-party payors and customers may expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we conduct research and would market, sell and distribute our products. As a biopharmaceutical company, even though we do not and will not control referrals of healthcare services or bill directly to Medicare, Medicaid or other third-party payors, federal and state healthcare laws and regulations pertaining to fraud and abuse and patients’ rights are and will be applicable to our business. Restrictions under applicable federal and state healthcare laws and regulations that may affect our ability to operate include the following:

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Efforts to ensure that our business arrangements with third parties comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will involve substantial costs. It is possible that governmental authorities will conclude that our business practices do not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law involving applicable healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other governmental regulations, we may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, imprisonment, exclusion from government-funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, disgorgement, additional reporting requirements or oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations.

Foreign Regulation

In addition to regulations in the U.S., we are subject to a variety of foreign regulations governing clinical studies and commercial sales and distribution of our product candidates. Whether or not we obtain FDA approval for a product candidate, we must obtain approval from the comparable regulatory authorities of foreign countries or economic areas, such as the European Union, before we may commence clinical studies or market products in those countries or areas. The approval process and requirements governing the conduct of clinical studies, product licensing, pricing and reimbursement vary greatly from place to place, and the time may be longer or shorter than that required for FDA approval.

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Certain countries outside of the U.S. have a process that requires the submission of a CTA, which is much like an IND in the U.S., prior to the commencement of human clinical studies. In the EU, for example, in accordance with the requirements of the EU Clinical Trials Directive, as implemented in national law by Member States, a CTA must be submitted to the competent national health authority and to independent ethics committees in each country in which a company intends to conduct clinical studies. Once the CTA is approved in accordance with a country’s requirements, clinical study development may proceed in that country. In all cases, the clinical studies must be conducted in accordance with GCP and other applicable regulatory requirements. In 2014, a new Clinical Trials Regulation 536/2014, replacing the current Directive, was adopted. The new Regulation will become directly applicable in all EU Member States (without national implementation) once the EU Portal and Database are fully functional. It is expected that the Regulation will apply in late 2021. The new Regulation seeks to simplify and streamline the approval of clinical trials in the European Union. For example, the sponsor shall submit a single application for approval of a clinical trial via the EU Portal. As part of the application process, the sponsor shall propose a reporting Member State, who will coordinate the validation and evaluation of the application. The reporting Member State shall consult and coordinate with the other concerned Member States. If an approval is issued, the sponsor can start the clinical trial in all concerned Member States. However, a concerned Member State can in limited circumstances declare an “opt-out” from an approval. In such a case, the clinical trial cannot be conducted in that Member State. The Regulation also aims to streamline and simplify the rules on safety reporting and introduces enhanced transparency requirements such as mandatory submission of a summary of the clinical trial results to the EU Database.

Under EU regulatory systems, a company may submit marketing authorization applications under centralized or decentralized, or mutual-recognition procedures. We expect to utilize the centralized procedure, which is compulsory for medicinal products produced by biotechnology or those medicinal products containing new active substances for specific indications such as the treatment of AIDS, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, viral diseases and designated orphan medicines, and optional for other medicines which are highly innovative. Under the centralized procedure, a marketing application is submitted to the EMA, where it will be evaluated by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use. If this committee delivers a favorable opinion, this typically results in the grant by the European Commission of a single marketing authorization that is valid for all EU member states within 67 days of receipt of the opinion. The initial marketing authorization is valid for five years, but once renewed is usually valid for an unlimited period. Conditional marketing authorization in the European Union is permitted based on incomplete clinical data for a limited number of medicinal products for human use, including products designated as orphan medicinal products under EU law, if (1) the risk-benefit balance of the product is positive, (2) it is likely that the applicant will be in a position to provide the required comprehensive clinical study data, (3) unmet medical needs will be fulfilled and (4) the benefit to public health of the immediate availability on the market of the medicinal product outweighs the risk inherent in the fact that additional data are still required. Specific obligations, including with respect to the completion of ongoing or new studies, and with respect to the collection of pharmacovigilance data, may be specified in the conditional marketing authorization. Conditional marketing authorizations are valid for one year and may be renewed annually, if the risk-benefit balance remains positive, and after an assessment of the need for additional or modified conditions.

As in the U.S., we may apply for designation of a product as an orphan drug for the treatment of a specific indication in the European Union before the application for marketing authorization is made. Orphan drugs in Europe enjoy economic and marketing benefits, including up to 11 years of exclusivity for the approved indication unless another applicant can show that its product is safer, more effective or otherwise clinically superior to the orphan-designated product. The PRIME initiative was established by the EMA to help promote and foster the development of new medicines in the European Union that demonstrate potential for a major therapeutic advantage in areas of unmet medical need. Benefits from the PRIME designation include early confirmation of potential for accelerated assessment, early dialogue and increased interaction with relevant regulatory committees to discuss development options, scientific advice at key development milestones, and proactive regulatory support from the EMA.

In the EU, companies developing a new medicinal product must agree to a PIP with the EMA and must conduct pediatric clinical trials in accordance with that PIP, unless a deferral or waiver applies, (e.g., because the relevant disease or condition occurs only in adults). The marketing authorization application for the product must include the results of pediatric clinical trials conducted in accordance with the PIP, unless a waiver applies, or a deferral has been granted, in which case the pediatric clinical trials must be completed at a later date. Products that are granted a marketing authorization on the basis of the pediatric clinical trials conducted in accordance with the PIP are eligible for a six month extension of the protection under a supplementary protection certificate (if any is in effect at the time of approval) or, in the case of orphan medicinal products, a two year extension of the orphan market exclusivity. This pediatric reward is subject to specific conditions and is not automatically available when data in compliance with the PIP are developed and submitted.

Outside the U.S., there are additional challenges in ensuring adequate coverage and payment for our products. Pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals is subject to governmental control in many countries. Pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can extend well beyond the receipt of regulatory approval for a product and may require us to conduct a clinical study that compares the cost effectiveness of our product candidates or products to other available therapies. The conduct of this type of clinical study could be expensive and result in delays in our commercialization efforts. Third-party payors are challenging the prices charged for medical products and services, and many third-party payors limit reimbursement for newly-approved health care products. Budgetary pressures in many European Union countries are also causing governments to consider or implement various cost-containment measures, such as price freezes, increased price cuts and rebates. If budget pressures continue, governments may implement additional cost-containment measures. Cost-control initiatives could decrease the price we might establish for products that we may develop or sell, which would result in lower product revenues or royalties payable to us. There can be no assurance that any country that has price controls or reimbursement limitations for pharmaceutical products will allow favorable reimbursement and pricing arrangements for any of our products.

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Brexit and the Regulatory Framework in the United Kingdom

Following the result of a referendum in 2016, the United Kingdom left the EU on January 31, 2020, commonly referred to as Brexit. Pursuant to the formal withdrawal arrangements agreed between the United Kingdom and the EU, the United Kingdom was subject to a transition period until December 31, 2020 (the Transition Period) during which EU rules continued to apply. A UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Deal (the Deal) that outlines the future trading relationship between the United Kingdom and the European Union was agreed in December 2020 and has been approved by each EU member state and the United Kingdom.  

Since a significant proportion of the regulatory framework in the United Kingdom applicable to our business and our product candidates is derived from EU directives and regulations, Brexit has had, and will continue to have, a material impact upon the regulatory regime with respect to the development, manufacture, importation, approval and commercialization of our product candidates in the United Kingdom and the EU. Great Britain (made up of England, Scotland and Wales) is no longer covered by the EEA’s procedures for the grant of marketing authorizations (Northern Ireland will be covered by the centralized authorization procedure and can be covered under the decentralized or mutual recognition procedures). A separate marketing authorization will be required to market drugs in Great Britain. It is currently unclear whether the Medical Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the United Kingdom is sufficiently prepared to handle the increased volume of marketing authorization applications that it is likely to receive. Any delay in obtaining, or an inability to obtain, any marketing approvals, would delay or prevent us from commercializing our product candidates in the United Kingdom or the EU and restrict our ability to generate revenue and achieve and sustain profitability.

While the Deal provides for the tariff-free trade of medicinal products between the United Kingdom and the EU there may be additional non-tariff costs to such trade which did not exist prior to the end of the Transition Period. Further, should the United Kingdom diverge from the EU from a regulatory perspective in relation to medicinal products, tariffs could be put into place in the future. We could therefore, both now and in the future, face significant additional expenses (when compared to the position prior to the end of the Transition Period) to operate our business, which could significantly and materially harm or delay our ability to generate revenues or achieve profitability of our business. Any further changes in international trade, tariff and import/export regulations as a result of Brexit or otherwise may impose unexpected duty costs or other non-tariff barriers on us. These developments, or the perception that any of them could occur, may significantly reduce global trade and, in particular, trade between the impacted nations and the United Kingdom. It is also possible that Brexit may negatively affect our ability to attract and retain employees, particularly those from the EU.

Orphan designation in Great Britain following Brexit is granted on an essentially identical basis to in the EU, but is based on the prevalence of the condition in Great Britain. It is therefore possible that conditions that are currently designated as orphan conditions in Great Britain will no longer be and that conditions that are not currently designated as orphan conditions in the EU will be designated as such in Great Britain.

Additional Regulation

As a biopharmaceutical company, even though we do not and will not control referrals of healthcare services or bill directly to Medicare, Medicaid or other third-party payors, federal and state healthcare laws and regulations pertaining to fraud and abuse and patients’ rights are and will be applicable to our business. We are also subject to regulation under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the Environmental Protection Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and other present and potential federal, state or local regulations. These and other laws govern our use, handling and disposal of various biological and chemical substances used in, and waste generated by, our operations. Our research and development involves the controlled use of hazardous materials, chemicals and viruses. Although we believe that our safety procedures for handling and disposing of such materials comply with the standards prescribed by state and federal regulations, the risk of accidental contamination or injury from these materials cannot be completely eliminated. In the event of such an accident, we could be held liable for any damages that result and any such liability could exceed our resources.

Manufacturing

Our manufacturing facility in Thousand Oaks, California has the flexibility to manufacture multiple T-cell and CAR T immunotherapies while integrating research and process science functions to enable increased collaboration for rapid product development. Our research and development and process and analytical development labs are currently supporting preclinical development activities. Our facility is designed to global regulatory standards, and the required facility commissioning and qualification activities to support clinical manufacturing are complete. We are in the process of completing our facility’s commercial production qualification activities for tab-cel^® while building inventory according to our commercial product supply strategy.

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We continue to scale our EBV T-cell manufacturing platform to improve product yields from a single donor leukapheresis and have generated data confirming the use of stirred-tank perfusion bioreactors to improve yield and cell growth productivity. We believe our scale-up technology can potentially be a key enabler to deliver biologic-like cost of goods manufactured and could be leveraged across our portfolio, including our CAR T programs. There have been transient interruptions in the supply of leukapheresis collections related to the COVID-19 pandemic, which supply raw materials used in our product candidates. If we are unable to obtain such raw materials or other necessary raw materials in a timely manner, our business operations and manufacturing capabilities could be adversely affected.

In addition to our manufacturing facility, we also work with Cognate BioServices, Inc. (Cognate) pursuant to a Commercial Manufacturing Services Agreement (the Manufacturing Agreement) that we entered into in December 2019. Pursuant to the Manufacturing Agreement, Cognate provides manufacturing services for certain of our product candidates. The initial term of the Manufacturing Agreement runs until December 31, 2021 and is renewable with Cognate’s approval for an additional one-year period. We may terminate the Manufacturing Agreement for convenience on six months’ written notice to Cognate, or immediately if Cognate is unable to perform the services under the Manufacturing Agreement or fails to obtain or maintain certain necessary approvals.

Our current manufacturing strategy is to evaluate each product candidate and determine which site in our manufacturing network provides the phase-appropriate technical, quality and regulatory compliance requirements. In addition, the long-range supply requirements of our product candidates are evaluated periodically to ensure we are planning manufacturing capacity and capabilities accordingly across our network. Our manufacturing network is comprised of our own facility and the manufacturing capabilities of our partners, including MSK and an affiliate of QIMR Berghofer, and contract manufacturing organizations (CMOs), including Cognate. This strategic approach provides us with the flexibility to support our clinical and commercial production needs, address time or capacity constraints as well as provide supply redundancy, where appropriate.

Our T-cell product candidates require blood-derived starting materials which are received from healthy, consenting third-party donors through FDA- and EMA-compliant collection centers. Our manufacturing operations are conducted under Code of Federal Regulations Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), as well as Good Tissue Practices (GTPs). GTPs are FDA regulations and guidance documents that govern the methods used in, and the facilities and controls used for, the manufacture of HCT/Ps, which are human cells or tissue intended for implantation, transplant, infusion or transfer into a human recipient. The primary intent of the GTP requirements is to ensure that cell and tissue-based products are manufactured in a manner designed to prevent the introduction, transmission and spread of communicable disease. FDA regulations also require tissue establishments to register and list their HCT/Ps with the FDA and, when applicable, to evaluate donors through screening and testing.

Through agreements with our partners, we have acquired the right to use certain manufacturing process know-how related to producing clinical research-related drug supply. These include materials to support the manufacturing of clinical study material, including key starting materials and intermediates as well as existing inventory of clinical study materials. We also have the ability to obtain supply from third parties to ensure we have the necessary blood donated from healthy consenting third-party donors.

Human Capital Management

As of December 31, 2020, we had 437 employees. We believe that the success of our business will depend, in part, on our ability to attract and retain qualified personnel. Our human capital strategy is designed to enable successful execution of our business objectives, while fostering a collaborative and innovative culture, that embraces diversity and inclusion. We monitor our success with insights across human capital metrics such as employee engagement, vacancy rates, time to hire, promotion rates, performance ratings, succession depth, retention, EEO compliance, pay equity, and diversity representation. The principal purposes of our compensation policies and equity incentive plans are to attract, retain and motivate employees and directors by paying for performance through the granting of stock-based compensation awards and cash-based performance bonus awards. None of our employees are represented by a labor union or are a party to a collective bargaining agreement and we consider our relations with our employees to be good.

COVID-19 Business Update

We continue to closely monitor the impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic on our business and operations and have taken steps to ensure the health and safety of our employees, staff, clinical site staff and patients and to maintain business continuity. Based on guidance issued by federal, state and local authorities, we have temporarily transitioned most of our workforce to a remote, work-from-home model, while maintaining essential in-person manufacturing and laboratory functions in order to advance key research, development and manufacturing priorities. We implemented safety protocols and procedures to support our onsite workforce.

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In addition to implementing measures to protect the health and safety of our workforce, our clinical study and operational teams are working closely with clinical sites to ensure the safety of site staff and patients as well as preserve data integrity and access to treatment as appropriate. Where needed, remote study visits, leveraged tele-medicine, home health care, and other methods have been established to ensure continuity of care for patients while preserving key endpoint data.

To date, the COVID-19 pandemic has not materially impacted our or our partners’ clinical, research and development, regulatory and manufacturing operations or timelines. We have experienced, and may continue to experience, some transient delays in clinical trial site initiation and patient enrollment in certain of our clinical trials as a result of the evolving impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. For example, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in April 2020 we temporarily paused the screening and enrollment of patients in our RCT for ATA188. We were able to resume such activities and enrolled the first patient in the study in June 2020. Our Phase 2 multi-cohort study of tab-cel^® has experienced some delays in clinical trial site initiation activities, but we do not believe this study has been significantly impacted. Our Phase 3 clinical trial of tab-cel^® in patients with EBV+ PTLD has not been significantly impacted by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

The full extent to which the COVID-19 pandemic may impact our business and operations is subject to future developments which are uncertain and difficult to predict. Further quarantines, shelter-in-place or similar restrictions and other actions taken or imposed by foreign, federal, state and local governments could adversely impact our or our partners’ clinical, research and development, regulatory and manufacturing operations or timelines. We continue to monitor the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on our business and operations and will seek to adjust our activities as appropriate. In addition, the pandemic could result in significant and prolonged disruption of global financial markets, reducing our ability to access capital, which could in the future negatively affect the financial resources available to us.

For additional information about risks and uncertainties related to the COVID-19 pandemic that may impact our business, financial condition and operations, see the section titled “1A. Risk Factors” under Part I, Item 1A in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Corporate Information

We were incorporated in Delaware in 2012. Our principal corporate offices are located at 611 Gateway Blvd., Suite 900, South San Francisco, California 94080 and our telephone number at that address is (650) 278-8930. Our website address is www.atarabio.com.

Available Information

We file Annual Reports on Form 10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Form 8-K, proxy statements and other materials with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). We make these reports available free of charge through our website as soon as reasonably practicable after we electronically file such reports with, or furnish such reports to, the SEC. The information contained on, or that can be accessed through, our website is not a part of or incorporated by reference in this Annual Report on Form 10-K or in any other filings we make with the SEC.

The SEC also maintains an internet site that contains reports, proxy and information statements and other information regarding issuers that file electronically with the SEC at www.sec.gov.

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Item 1A. Risk Factors

Investing in our securities involves a high degree of risks. Investors should carefully consider all of the risk factors and uncertainties described below, in addition to the other information contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including the section of this report titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and our consolidated financial statements and related notes, before investing in our securities.

The risks described below may not be the only ones relating to our company and additional risks that we currently believe are immaterial may also affect us. If any of these risks, including those described below, materialize, our business, competitive position, reputation, financial condition, results of operations, cash flows and future prospects could be seriously harmed. In these circumstances, the market price of our securities could decline, and investors may lose all or a part of their investment.

Risks Related to Our Financial Results and Capital Needs

We have incurred substantial losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur substantial and increasing losses for the foreseeable future.

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company. Investment in biopharmaceutical product development is highly speculative because it entails substantial upfront capital expenditures and significant risk that product candidates will fail to prove effective, gain regulatory approval or become commercially viable. We do not have any products approved by regulatory authorities and have not generated any revenues from product sales, and have incurred significant research, development and other expenses related to our ongoing operations and expect to continue to incur such expenses. As a result, we have not been profitable and have incurred significant operating losses in every reporting period since our inception. For the year ended December 31, 2020, we reported a net loss of $306.6 million.

We do not expect to generate product revenues in the near future, if at all. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future. We anticipate these losses to increase as we continue to research, develop and seek regulatory approvals for our product candidates and any additional product candidates we may acquire, in-license or develop, and potentially begin to commercialize product candidates that may achieve regulatory approval. We may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other unknown factors that may adversely affect our business. The size of our future net losses will depend, in part, on the rate of future growth of our expenses and our ability to generate revenues. If any of our product candidates fails in clinical studies or does not gain regulatory approval, or if approved, fails to achieve market acceptance, we may never become profitable. Even if we achieve profitability in the future, we may not be able to sustain profitability in subsequent periods. We anticipate that our expenses will increase in the future as we continue to invest in research and development of our existing product candidates, investigate and potentially acquire new product candidates and expand our manufacturing and commercialization activities.

We have a limited operating history, which may make it difficult to evaluate the success of our business to date and to assess our future viability.

Our company was formed in August 2012. Our operations to date have been limited to organizing and staffing our company, acquiring product and technology rights and conducting product development activities for our product candidates. We have not yet demonstrated our ability to successfully complete any Phase 2 or Phase 3 clinical studies, obtain regulatory approval, consistently manufacture a commercial scale product or arrange for a third party to do so on our behalf, or conduct sales and marketing activities necessary for successful commercialization for any of our product candidates. In addition, the adoptive immunotherapy technology underlying our T-cell product candidates, including our next-generation CAR T programs, is new and largely unproven. Any predictions about our future success, performance or viability, particularly in view of the rapidly evolving immunotherapy field, may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a longer operating history or approved products on the market.

In addition, as a young business, we may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other known and unknown factors. Because of the anticipated completion of our BLA filing for tab-cel^® in the third quarter of 2021 and a potential approval decision on the same in the first half of 2022, we plan to begin transitioning from a company with a research and development focus to a company capable of supporting commercial activities. We may not be successful in such a transition. We expect our financial condition and operating results to continue to fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year due to a variety of factors, many of which are beyond our control. Accordingly, any of our quarterly or annual periods’ results are not indicative of future operating performance.

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We currently have no approved products and thus have no product revenues. We may never generate revenues from the sale of products or achieve profitability.

To date, we have not generated any revenues from product sales. Even if we are able to successfully achieve regulatory approval for our product candidates, we do not know when we will generate revenues from product sales or become profitable, if at all. Our ability to generate revenues from product sales and achieve profitability will depend on our ability to successfully commercialize products, including any of our current product candidates, and other product candidates that we may develop, in-license or acquire in the future. Our ability to generate revenues from the sale of products and achieve profitability also depends on a number of additional factors, including our ability to:

Our revenues for any product candidate for which regulatory approval is obtained will be dependent, in part, upon the size of the markets in the territories for which we gain regulatory approval, the accepted price for the product, the ability to get reimbursement at any price, and whether we own the commercial rights for that territory. If the number of our addressable disease patients is not as significant as we estimate, the indication approved by regulatory authorities is narrower than we expect, or the reasonably accepted population for treatment is narrowed by competition, physician choice, treatment guidelines or a reduction in the incidence of the addressable disease, we may not generate significant revenues from sales of our products, even if approved. In addition, we anticipate incurring significant costs associated with commercializing any approved product candidate. As a result, even if we generate revenues, we may not become profitable and may need to obtain additional funding to continue operations. If we fail to become profitable or are unable to sustain profitability on a continuing basis, then we may be unable to continue our operations at planned levels and may be forced to reduce our operations.

We will require substantial additional financing to achieve our goals, and a failure to obtain this necessary capital when needed could force us to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or commercialization efforts.

We expect to expend substantial resources for the foreseeable future to continue the clinical development and manufacturing of our T-cell immunotherapy product candidates, and the advancement and expansion of our preclinical research pipeline. We also expect to continue to expend resources for the development and manufacturing of product candidates and the technology we have licensed or have an exclusive right to license from our partners. These expenditures will include costs associated with research and development, potentially acquiring or licensing new product candidates or technologies, conducting preclinical and clinical studies and potentially obtaining regulatory approvals and manufacturing products, as well as marketing and selling products approved for sale, if any. Under the terms of our license agreements with each of our in-license partners, we are obligated to make payments upon the achievement of certain development, regulatory and commercial milestones. We will also need to make significant expenditures to develop a commercial organization capable of sales, marketing and distribution for any products, if any, that we intend to sell ourselves in the markets in which we choose to commercialize on our own. In addition, other unanticipated costs may arise. Because the design and outcome of our ongoing, planned and anticipated clinical studies is highly uncertain, we cannot reasonably estimate the actual amounts necessary to successfully complete the development and commercialization of our product candidates.

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Our future capital requirements depend on many factors, including:

We believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments as of December 31, 2020, together with projected revenues from U.S. tab-cel^® sales, if approved, will be sufficient to fund our operations into 2023, including expenses related to the BLA filing and potential commercial launch of tab-cel^® in the U.S. As of December 31, 2020, we had total cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments of $500.7 million. However, our operating plan may change as a result of many factors currently unknown to us, and we may need additional funds sooner than planned.

We do not have any committed external source of funds other than reimbursements, milestone and royalty payments that we may receive under the Bayer License Agreement. While we expect to continue to opportunistically seek access to additional funds through additional public or private equity offerings or debt financings, through potential collaborations, partnering or other strategic arrangements, or a combination of the foregoing, additional funds may not be available when we need them on terms that are acceptable to us, or at all. Our ability to raise additional capital may be adversely impacted by potential worsening global economic conditions and the disruptions to and volatility in the credit and financial markets in the United States and worldwide, including the trading price of our common stock, resulting from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. If adequate funds are not available to us on a timely basis, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate preclinical studies, clinical studies or other development activities for one or more of our product candidates or delay, limit, reduce or terminate our establishment of sales, marketing and distribution capabilities or other activities that may be necessary to commercialize our product candidates.

Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our existing stockholders, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our product candidates on terms that are unfavorable to us.

We may seek required additional capital through a variety of means, including through private and public equity offerings and debt financings. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, or if existing holders of warrants exercise their rights to purchase common stock, the ownership interest of existing stockholders will be diluted, and the terms may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect the rights of stockholders. To the extent equity valuations, including the trading price of our common stock, are depressed as a result of economic disruptions and uncertainty concerning the COVID-19 pandemic or other factors, the potential magnitude of this dilution will increase. Debt financing, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take certain actions, including incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, entering into licensing arrangements, or declaring dividends. If we raise additional funds from third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies or product candidates or grant licenses or other rights on terms that are not favorable to us. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financing when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or commercialization efforts for our product candidates, grant to others the rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves or take other actions that are adverse to our business.

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Risks Related to the Development of Our Product Candidates

We are generally early in our development efforts and have only a small number of product candidates in clinical development. All of our other product candidates are still in preclinical development. If we or our collaborators are unable to successfully develop and commercialize product candidates or experience significant delays in doing so, our business may be materially harmed.

We are generally early in our development efforts, and only a small number of our product candidates are in clinical development. The majority of our product candidates are currently in preclinical development. We have invested substantial resources in identifying and developing potential product candidates, conducting preclinical and clinical studies, manufacturing activities and preparing for the potential commercial launch of our product candidates. Our ability to generate revenues from the sale of products, if approved, will depend heavily on the successful development and eventual commercialization of our product candidates. The success of our product candidates will depend on many factors, including the following:

If we do not achieve one or more of these factors in a timely manner or at all, we could experience significant delays or an inability to successfully develop and commercialize our product candidates, which could materially harm our business.

Our business and operations have been affected by and could be materially and adversely affected in the future by the effects of health epidemics and pandemics, including the evolving and ongoing effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic continues to impact our business and operations and could materially and adversely affect our business and operations in the future, as well as the businesses and operations of third parties on which we rely.

Our business could be adversely affected by health epidemics and pandemics, including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which has presented a substantial public health and economic challenge around the world and has affected, and continues to affect, our employees, patients, communities and business operations, as well as the U.S. economy and financial markets. The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in transient, episodic travel and other restrictions to reduce the spread of the disease and included a California executive order and many other foreign, state and local orders (including in locations where we operate facilities), which, among other things, direct individuals to shelter at their places of residence, direct businesses and governmental agencies to cease non-essential operations at physical locations, prohibit certain non-essential gatherings and order cessation of non-essential travel. As a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the work-from-home model we implemented for most of our employees remains in place. We continue to maintain essential in-person manufacturing and laboratory functions in order to advance key research, development and manufacturing priorities. In connection with these measures, we may be subject to claims based upon, arising out of, or related to COVID-19 and our actions and responses thereto, including any determinations that we may make to continue to operate or to re-open our facilities where permitted by applicable law. The effects of current and potential future state executive orders, local shelter-in-place orders, government-imposed quarantines and our work-from-home policies and other similar, and perhaps more severe, actions may negatively impact productivity, disrupt our business and delay our clinical programs and timelines, the magnitude of which will depend, in part, on the length and severity of the restrictions and other limitations on our ability to conduct our business in the ordinary course.

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Further quarantines, shelter-in-place or similar restrictions and other actions taken by foreign, federal, state and local governments, or the perception that such orders, shutdowns or other restrictions on the conduct of business operations could occur or could be reinstated, related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic or other infectious diseases, could impact our manufacturing capabilities and third-party manufacturing facilities in the United States and other countries, or the availability or cost of materials, which would disrupt our supply chain. In particular, standard transportation channels have been impacted and we and other manufacturing, testing, product disposition, contract manufacturing organizations and external testing laboratories are subject to enhanced risk assessment and mitigation measures. In addition, there have been and may continue to be interruptions in the supply of leukapheresis collections, which supply raw materials used in our products. Our clinical trials may be affected by health epidemics and have been affected by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical site initiation and patient enrollment have experienced delays as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, including due to the prioritization of hospital resources toward COVID-19 and away from clinical trials or as a result of changing practice patterns that impact the diseases our trials address. Some patients may not be able to comply with clinical trial protocols if quarantines impede patient movement or interrupt healthcare services or if patients contract COVID-19 or are forced to quarantine. For example, while most clinical trial sites for our studies, including our Phase 3 clinical trial of tab-cel^® in patients with EBV+ PTLD, remain open to enrollment for patients, some sites have limited the screening and enrollment of new patients due to governmental orders related to COVID-19, or fear of infection of COVID-19, have limited, and may continue to limit, patients’ abilities to access clinical sites. COVID-19-related travel restrictions may also interrupt key clinical trial activities, such as clinical trial site data monitoring and efficacy, safety and translational data collection, processing and analyses. At the outset of the COVID-19 pandemic, we observed a temporary slow-down in stem cell and solid organ transplant volumes, which may have decreased the eligible patient population for the tab-cel^® Phase 3 study. In April 2020, we initiated a temporary pause in the screening and enrollment of patients in our RCT of ATA188 in patients with progressive MS. Although we were able to resume the screening and enrollment of patients in our RCT of ATA188 and enrolled the first patient in the study in June 2020, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic may require us to institute another pause in the screening and enrollment of patients in our RCT. Similarly, our ability to recruit and retain principal investigators and site staff who, as healthcare providers, may have heightened exposure to COVID-19, may be adversely impacted.

In addition, while the potential economic impact brought by, and the duration of, the COVID-19 pandemic and the various actions taken in response to it may be difficult to assess or predict, the pandemic could result in significant disruption of global financial markets, reducing our ability to access capital, which could in the future negatively affect our liquidity. In addition, a recession or market correction resulting from the spread of COVID-19 could materially affect our business and the value of our common stock.

While we expect the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic to continue to adversely affect our business operations, the extent of the impact on our clinical development and regulatory efforts and the value of and market for our common stock will depend on future developments that are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted with confidence at this time, such as the ultimate duration of the pandemic, travel restrictions, quarantines, social distancing and business closure requirements in the U.S. and in other countries, and the effectiveness of actions taken globally to contain and treat COVID-19. In addition, to the extent the evolving effects of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic adversely affect our business and results of operations, it may also have the effect of heightening many of the other risks and uncertainties described elsewhere in this “Risk Factors” section.

Our future success is dependent on the regulatory approval of our product candidates.

We do not have any products that have gained regulatory approval. Currently, our prioritized clinical-stage product candidates include tab‑cel^®, for which we are positioned to initiate a BLA submission to the FDA for EBV+ PTLD, and ATA188. Our business is substantially dependent on our ability to obtain regulatory approval for, and, if approved, to successfully commercialize our product candidates in a timely manner.

We cannot commercialize product candidates in the U.S. without first obtaining regulatory approval for the product from the FDA; similarly, we cannot commercialize product candidates outside of the U.S. without obtaining regulatory approval from comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Before obtaining regulatory approvals for the commercial sale of any product candidate for a target indication, we must demonstrate with substantial evidence gathered in preclinical and clinical studies that the product candidate is safe and effective for use for that target indication and that the manufacturing facilities, processes and controls are adequate with respect to such product candidate to assure safety, purity and potency.

The time required to obtain approval by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities is unpredictable but typically takes many years following the commencement of preclinical and clinical studies and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. We have not obtained regulatory approval for any product candidate and it is possible that none of our existing product candidates or any future product candidates will ever obtain regulatory approval.

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Our product candidates could fail to receive regulatory approval from the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority for many reasons, including:

The FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority may require more information, including additional preclinical or clinical data to support approval, which may delay or prevent approval and our commercialization plans, or we may decide to abandon the development program. If we were to obtain approval, regulatory authorities may approve any of our product candidates for fewer or more limited indications than we request (including failing to approve the most commercially promising indications), may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly post-marketing clinical studies, or may approve a product candidate with a label that does not include the labeling claims necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of that product candidate.

In addition, the clinical study requirements of the FDA, EMA and other regulatory agencies and the criteria these regulators use to determine the safety and efficacy of a product candidate are determined according to the type, complexity, novelty and intended use and market of the potential products. The regulatory approval process for novel product candidates, such as our novel T-cell product candidates and next-generation CAR T programs, can be more complex and consequently more expensive and take longer than for other, better known or extensively studied pharmaceutical or other product candidates. Approvals by the EMA and FDA for existing autologous CAR T therapies, such as Novartis’s Kymriah^® and Gilead’s Yescarta^®, may not be indicative of what these regulators may require for approval of our therapies. Moreover, our product candidates may not perform successfully in clinical studies or may be associated with adverse events that distinguish them from those that have previously been approved, such as existing autologous CAR T therapies. For instance, allogeneic product candidates may result in adverse events not experienced with autologous products.

Our development and commercialization activities could be harmed or delayed by governmental or regulatory delays due to limitations on the availability of governmental and regulatory agency personnel to review regulatory filings or engage with us, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, changes to governmental regulatory requirements, policies, guidelines or priorities, reallocation, or availability of government resources, or for other reasons, which may significantly delay the FDA’s, or other regulatory agency, ability to review and process any submissions we have filed or may file or cause other regulatory delays.

Even if a product candidate were to successfully obtain approval from the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, any approval might contain significant limitations related to use restrictions for specified age groups, warnings, precautions or contraindications, or may be subject to burdensome post-approval study or risk management requirements. If we are unable to obtain regulatory approval for one of our product candidates in one or more jurisdictions, or any approval contains significant limitations, we may not be able to obtain sufficient funding to continue the development of that product or generate revenues attributable to that product candidate. Also, any regulatory approval of our current or future product candidates, once obtained, may be withdrawn.

Our T-cell immunotherapy product candidates and our next-generation CAR T programs represent new therapeutic approaches that could result in heightened regulatory scrutiny, delays in clinical development or delays in or our inability to achieve regulatory approval, commercialization or payor coverage of our product candidates.

Our future success is dependent on the successful development of T-cell immunotherapies and our next-generation CAR T programs in general and our development product candidates in particular. Because these programs, particularly our pipeline of allogeneic T-cell product candidates that are bioengineered from donors, represent a new approach to immunotherapy for the treatment of cancer and other diseases, developing and commercializing our product candidates subject us to a number of challenges, including:

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We cannot be sure that the manufacturing processes used in connection with our T-cell immunotherapy product candidates will yield a sufficient supply of satisfactory products that are safe, pure, potent, comparable to those T cells produced by our partners historically, scalable or profitable.

Moreover, actual or perceived safety issues, including adoption of new therapeutics or novel approaches to treatment, may adversely influence the willingness of subjects to participate in clinical studies, or, if one of our product candidates is approved by applicable regulatory authorities, of physicians to subscribe to the novel treatment mechanics or of patients to provide consent to receive a novel treatment despite its regulatory approval. The FDA or other applicable regulatory authorities may require specific post-market studies or additional information that communicates the benefits or risks of our products. New data may reveal new risks of our product candidates at any time prior to or after regulatory approval.

Physicians, hospitals and third-party payors often are slow to adopt new products, technologies and treatment practices that require additional upfront costs and training. Physicians may not be willing to undergo training to adopt this novel therapy, may decide the therapy is too complex to adopt without appropriate training or not cost-efficient, and may choose not to administer the therapy. Based on these and other factors, hospitals and payors may decide that the benefits of this new therapy do not or will not outweigh its costs.

The results of preclinical studies or earlier clinical studies are not necessarily predictive of future results. Our existing product candidates in clinical studies, and any other product candidate we advance into clinical studies, may not have favorable results in later clinical studies or receive regulatory approval.

Success in preclinical studies and early clinical studies does not ensure that later clinical studies will generate adequate data to demonstrate the efficacy and safety of an investigational drug. Likewise, a number of companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, including those with greater resources and experience than us, have suffered significant setbacks in clinical studies, even after seeing promising results in earlier preclinical studies or clinical studies. Despite the results reported in earlier preclinical studies or clinical studies for our product candidates, we do not know whether the clinical studies we may conduct, or clinical studies in progress, will demonstrate adequate efficacy and safety to result in regulatory approval to market tab-cel^®, ATA188, any product candidates resulting from our next-generation CAR T programs or any of our other product candidates in any particular jurisdiction.

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Tab-cel^® has been predominantly evaluated in single-center studies under investigator-sponsored INDs held by MSK and in our EAP, utilizing different response criteria and endpoints from those we may utilize in later clinical studies. The findings may not be reproducible in late phase studies we conduct. For instance, the current protocol for our ALLELE study is designed to rule out a 20% ORR as the null hypothesis. This means that if the lower bound of the 95% confidence interval on ORR among patients receiving at least one dose of tab-cel^® exceeds 20% at the end of the study, then the study would be expected to meet the primary endpoint for the treatment of PTLD. For example, assuming enrollment of 33 patients in a cohort of ALLELE, an observed ORR above approximately 37% would be expected to meet the primary endpoint for that cohort. In addition, our amended ALLELE study protocol includes an interim analysis as well as a final study analysis. Depending on discussions with regulators, we may, for example, file a marketing application on the basis of interim data from a subset of the required patients or file a marketing application on the basis of the final data. A marketing application based on interim data would impact the required ORR and may also result in post-marketing requirements that must be fulfilled. Similarly, if conditional marketing authorization is granted from the European Commission, we may be subject to ongoing obligations, including the need to provide additional clinical data at a later stage to confirm a positive benefit/risk balance.

For regulatory approvals of tab-cel^®, we plan on using independent radiologist and/or oncologist assessment of responses which may not correlate with the investigator-reported assessments. In addition, the Phase 2 clinical studies with tab-cel^® enrolled a heterogeneous group of patients with a variety of EBV-driven malignancies, including EBV+ PTLD after HCT and EBV+ PTLD after SOT. These Phase 2 studies were not prospectively designed to evaluate the efficacy of tab-cel^® in the treatment of a single disease state for which we may later seek approval.

Moreover, final study results may not be consistent with interim study results. Efficacy data from prospectively designed studies may differ significantly from those obtained from retrospective subgroup analyses. In addition, clinical data obtained from a clinical study with an allogeneic product candidate may not yield the same or better results as compared to an autologous product candidate. If later-stage clinical studies do not produce favorable results, our ability to achieve regulatory approval for any of our product candidates may be adversely impacted. Even if we believe that we have adequate data to support an application for regulatory approval to market any of our product candidates, the FDA or other regulatory authorities may not agree and may require that we conduct additional clinical studies.

Interim “top line” and preliminary data from clinical studies that we or our partners may announce or share with regulatory authorities from time to time may change as more patient data become available and are subject to audit and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.

From time to time, we or our partners may announce or share with regulatory authorities interim “top line” or preliminary data from clinical studies. Interim data from completed clinical studies are subject to the risk that one or more of the clinical outcomes may materially change as patient enrollment continues and more patient data become available. Preliminary or “top line” data also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the preliminary data previously announced. As a result, interim and preliminary data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available. Adverse differences between preliminary or interim data and final data could impact the regulatory approval of, and significantly harm the prospects of any product candidate that is impacted by the applicable data.

Clinical drug development involves a lengthy and expensive process with an uncertain outcome.

Clinical testing is expensive and can take many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain. Failure can occur at any time during the clinical study process. Product candidates in later stages of clinical studies may fail to show the desired safety and efficacy traits despite having progressed through preclinical and clinical studies.

We may experience delays in our ongoing or future clinical studies and we do not know whether clinical studies will begin or enroll subjects on time, will need to be redesigned or will be completed on schedule, if at all. There can be no assurance that the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities will not put clinical studies of any of our product candidates on clinical hold in the future. Clinical studies may be delayed, suspended or prematurely terminated for a variety of reasons, such as:

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Patient enrollment, a significant factor in the timing of clinical studies, is affected by many factors including:

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As an example, we activated additional clinical sites over the course of 2018 and increased HLA coverage during this period. As a result, enrollment in our studies was limited in the early part of 2018 and increased through the course of the year as we increased clinical sites and HLA coverage. However, in May 2019, we announced that enrollment in our Phase 3 studies of tab-cel^® for patients with EBV+ PTLD was proceeding slower than anticipated. Many of our product candidates are designed to treat rare diseases, and as a result, the pool of potential patients with respect to a given disease is small. We may not be able to initiate or continue to support clinical studies of tab-cel^®, ATA188 or any other product candidates if we are unable to locate and enroll a sufficient number of eligible participants in these studies as required by the FDA or other regulatory authorities. We have experienced some transient delays in clinical trial site initiation and patient enrollment in certain of our clinical trials, including our Phase 3 clinical trial of tab-cel^®, as a result of the evolving impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, and if the COVID-19 pandemic continues and persists for an extended period of time, we could experience significant disruptions to our clinical development timelines. Even if we are able to enroll a sufficient number of patients in our clinical studies, if the pace of enrollment is slower than we expect, the development costs for our product candidates may increase and the completion of our studies may be delayed or our studies could become too expensive to complete.

We rely on CROs, other vendors and clinical study sites to ensure the proper and timely conduct of our clinical studies, and while we have agreements governing their committed activities, we have limited influence over their actual performance. Reliance on CROs entails risks to which we would not be subject if we conducted our clinical studies ourselves, including reliance on the CRO for clinical site initiation and monitoring, the possibility that the CRO does not maintain the financial resources to meet its obligations under our agreements, the possibility of breach of these agreements by the CRO because of factors beyond our control, including a failure to properly perform their obligations under these agreements, and the possibility of termination or nonrenewal of the agreements by the CROs, based on their own business priorities, at a time that is costly or damaging to us.

If we experience delays or quality issues in the conduct, completion or termination of any clinical study of our product candidates, the approval and commercial prospects of such product candidate will be harmed, and our ability to generate product revenues from such product candidate will be delayed. In addition, any delays in completing our clinical studies will increase our costs, slow down our product candidate development and approval process and jeopardize our ability to commence product sales and generate revenues. Any delays in completing our clinical studies for our product candidates may also decrease the period of commercial exclusivity. In addition, many of the factors that could cause a delay in the commencement or completion of clinical studies may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of our product candidates.

Our product candidates, the methods used to deliver them or their dosage levels may cause undesirable side effects or have other properties that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval, limit the commercial profile of an approved label or result in significant negative consequences following any regulatory approval.

Undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates, their delivery methods or dosage levels could cause us or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay or halt clinical studies and could result in a more restrictive label or the delay or denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or other comparable foreign regulatory authority. As a result of safety or toxicity issues that we or our partners may experience in our clinical studies, we or our partners may not receive approval to market any product candidates, which could prevent us from ever generating product or royalty revenues or achieving profitability. Results of our studies could reveal an unacceptably high severity and incidence of side effects, or risks that outweigh the benefits of our product candidates. In such an event, our studies could be suspended or terminated, and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could order us to cease further development of or deny approval of our product candidates for any or all targeted indications. The drug-related side effects could affect patient recruitment or the ability of enrolled subjects to complete the study or result in potential product liability claims.

Additionally, if any of our product candidates receives regulatory approval, and we or others later identify undesirable side effects caused by such product, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including that:

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Any of these events could diminish the usage or otherwise limit the commercial success of our product candidates and prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of the affected product candidate, if approved by applicable regulatory authorities.

The market opportunities for our product candidates may be limited to those patients who are ineligible for or have failed prior treatments and may be small.

The FDA often approves new cancer therapies initially only for use in patients with relapsed or refractory metastatic disease. We expect to initially seek approval of tab-cel^® and our other product candidates in this setting. Subsequently, for those products that prove to be sufficiently beneficial, if any, we would expect to seek approval in earlier lines of treatment and potentially as a first line therapy, but there is no guarantee that our product candidates, even if approved, would be approved for earlier lines of therapy, and, prior to any such approvals, we will have to conduct additional clinical trials.

Our projections of both the number of people who have the diseases we are targeting, as well as the subset of people with these diseases in a position to receive second or later lines of therapy, and who have the potential to benefit from treatment with our product candidates, are based on our current beliefs and estimates. These estimates have been derived from a variety of sources, including scientific literature, surveys of clinics, patient foundations, or our own market research, and may prove to be incorrect, including if the COVID-19 pandemic and associated responses impact our ability to engage with key stakeholders within the transplant center in person. Further, new studies or market research may change the estimated incidence or prevalence of these diseases, and the number of patients may turn out to be lower than expected. Additionally, the potentially addressable patient population for our product candidates may be limited or may not be amenable to treatment with our product candidates. For instance, we expect our lead product candidate, tab-cel^®, to initially target a small patient population that suffers from aggressive EBV+PTLD who have failed rituximab or rituximab plus chemotherapy. At the outset of the COVID-19 pandemic, we initially observed a temporary slow-down in stem cell and solid organ transplant volumes. These reductions were transient, but if a reduction in such volumes resumes, it could result in lower PTLD incidence and thus reduce the demand for tab-cel^®. Even if we obtain significant market share for our product candidates, because the potential target populations are small, we may never achieve profitability without obtaining regulatory approval for additional indications.

We may not be able to obtain or maintain orphan drug exclusivity for our product candidates.

Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the U.S., EU and the United Kingdom (U.K.), may designate drugs for relatively small patient populations as orphan drugs. Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may designate a product as an orphan drug if it is a drug intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally defined as a patient population of fewer than 200,000 individuals annually in the U.S. Both the FDA and the EMA have granted us orphan designation for tab-cel^® for EBV+ PTLD after HCT or SOT.

Generally, if a product with an orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first regulatory approval for the indication for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to a period of marketing exclusivity, which precludes the EMA or the FDA from approving another marketing application for the same biologic for the same indication for that time period. The applicable period is seven years in the U.S. and ten years in Europe. The European exclusivity period can be reduced to six years if a drug no longer meets the criteria for orphan drug designation or if the drug is sufficiently profitable so that market exclusivity is no longer justified. Orphan drug exclusivity may be lost if the FDA or EMA determines that the request for designation was materially defective or if the manufacturer is unable to assure sufficient quantity of the drug to meet the needs of patients with the rare disease or condition.

Even if we obtain orphan drug exclusivity for a product, that exclusivity may not be maintained or effectively protect the product from competition because different drugs can be approved for the same condition. Even after an orphan drug is approved, the FDA can subsequently approve a new drug for the same condition if the FDA concludes that the later drug is clinically superior in that it is shown to be safer, more effective or makes a major contribution to patient care.

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BTD by the FDA and PRIME designation by the EMA may not lead to a faster development or regulatory review or approval process and it does not increase the likelihood that our product candidates will receive marketing approval.

Although we have obtained BTD and PRIME designation for tab-cel^® for EBV+ PTLD in the U.S. and the EU, respectively, this may not lead to faster development or regulatory review and does not increase our likelihood of success. A breakthrough therapy is defined as a drug or biologic that is intended, alone or in combination with one or more other drugs or biologics, to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug, or biologic in our case, may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. For product candidates that have been designated as breakthrough therapies, interaction and communication between the FDA and the sponsor of the study can help to identify the most efficient path for clinical development while minimizing the number of patients placed in ineffective control regimens. Biologics designated as breakthrough therapies by the FDA may also be eligible for priority review. Based on our BTD, we intend to pursue a rolling submission strategy for our BLA for tab-cel^® for EBV+ PTLD in the U.S. While the rolling review process may provide the opportunity for ongoing communications with and feedback from the FDA, the FDA may raise issues and pose questions to us that may delay the initiation and completion of our BLA submission, acceptance of the complete BLA for filing, and approval of the BLA, thereby potentially delaying the approval process. We may not be able to provide a satisfactory or a timely response to FDA questions or we may not be able to timely gather the required data to prepare our BLA submissions as we plan. If we are unable to address all questions or concerns the FDA may raise or if we do not have timely access to the data required for the preparation of the BLA, we may not be able to timely initiate and complete our BLA and ultimately receive FDA approval. In addition, the FDA retains discretion to decide not to review the portions of our BLA submitted under the rolling review process until the submission is deemed to be complete.

PRIME designation supports the development and accelerated review by the EMA of new therapies to treat patients with unmet medical need.

Designation as a breakthrough therapy is within the discretion of the FDA, and access to PRIME is at the discretion of the EMA. Receipt of a BTD or PRIME designation for a product candidate may not result in a faster development process, review or approval compared to drugs considered for approval under non-expedited FDA or EMA review procedures, respectively, and does not assure ultimate approval by the FDA or EMA, respectively. In addition, the FDA or EMA, respectively, may later decide that the product no longer meets the conditions for qualification and rescind the BTD or PRIME designation or decide that the time period for FDA or EMA, respectively, review or approval will not be shortened.

Failure to obtain regulatory approval in international jurisdictions would prevent our product candidates from being marketed abroad.

In addition to regulations in the U.S., to market and sell our products in the EU, the U.K., many Asian countries and other jurisdictions, we must obtain separate regulatory approvals and comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements, both from a clinical and manufacturing perspective. The approval procedure varies among countries and can involve additional testing. The time required to obtain approval may differ substantially from that required to obtain FDA approval. The regulatory approval process outside the U.S. generally includes all of the risks associated with obtaining FDA approval. Clinical studies accepted in one country may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other countries. In addition, many countries outside the U.S. require that a product be approved for reimbursement before it can be approved for sale in that country. A product candidate that has been approved for sale in a particular country may not receive reimbursement approval in that country. We may not be able to obtain approvals from regulatory authorities or payor authorities outside the U.S. on a timely basis, if at all. Approval by the FDA does not ensure approval by regulatory or payor authorities in other countries or jurisdictions, and approval by one regulatory or payor authority outside the U.S. does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions or by the FDA. We may not be able to file for regulatory approvals and may not receive necessary approvals to commercialize our products in any market. If we are unable to obtain approval of any of our product candidates by regulatory or payor authorities in the European Union, the U.K., Asia or elsewhere, the commercial prospects of that product candidate may be significantly diminished.

Even if our product candidates receive regulatory approval, they may still face future development and regulatory difficulties.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate, it would be subject to ongoing requirements by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities governing the manufacture, quality control, further development, labeling, packaging, storage, distribution, adverse event reporting, safety surveillance, import, export, advertising, promotion, recordkeeping and reporting of safety and other post-marketing information. These requirements include submissions of safety and other post-marketing information and reports, registration, as well as continued compliance by us and/or our contract manufacturing organizations (CMOs) and CROs for any post-approval clinical studies that we conduct. The safety profile of any product will continue to be closely monitored by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities after approval. If the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities become aware of new safety information after approval of any of our product candidates, they may require labeling changes or establishment of a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy, impose significant restrictions on a product’s indicated uses or marketing or impose ongoing requirements for potentially costly post-approval studies or post-market surveillance.

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In addition, manufacturers of drug products and their facilities are subject to initial and continual review and periodic inspections by the FDA and other regulatory authorities for compliance with current good manufacturing practices (cGMP), current Good Clinical Practices (GCP), current good tissue practices (cGTP) and other regulations. If we or a regulatory agency discover previously unknown problems with a product, such as adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facility where the product is manufactured, a regulatory agency may impose restrictions on that product, the manufacturing facility or us, including requiring recall or withdrawal of the product from the market or suspension of manufacturing. If we, our product candidates, or the manufacturing facilities for our product candidates fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements, a regulatory agency may:

The occurrence of any event or penalty described above may inhibit our ability to successfully commercialize our products.

Advertising and promotion of any product candidate that obtains approval in the U.S. will be heavily scrutinized by the FDA, the Department of Justice (the DOJ), the Office of Inspector General of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), state attorneys general, members of the U.S. Congress and the public. Additionally, advertising and promotion of any product candidate that obtains approval outside of the U.S. will be heavily scrutinized by comparable foreign entities and stakeholders. For example, a company may not promote “off-label” uses for its drug products. An off-label use is the use of a product for an indication that is not described in the product’s FDA-approved label in the U.S. or for uses in other jurisdictions that differ from those approved by the applicable regulatory agencies. Physicians, on the other hand, may prescribe products for off-label uses. Although the FDA and other regulatory agencies do not regulate a physician’s choice of drug treatment made in the physician’s independent medical judgment, they do restrict promotional communications from companies or their sales force with respect to off-label uses of products for which marketing clearance has not been issued. However, companies may share truthful and not misleading information that is otherwise consistent with a product’s FDA approved labeling. Violations, including actual or alleged promotion of our products for unapproved or off-label uses, are subject to enforcement letters, inquiries and investigations, and civil and criminal sanctions by the FDA or comparable foreign bodies. Any actual or alleged failure to comply with labeling and promotion requirements may result in fines, warning letters, mandates to corrective information to healthcare practitioners, injunctions, or civil or criminal penalties.

Regulations, guidelines and recommendations published by various government agencies and organizations may affect the use of our product candidates.

Changes to regulations, recommendations or other guidelines advocating alternative therapies for the indications we treat could result in decreased use of our products. For example, although treatment with EBV-specific T cells is recognized as a recommended treatment for persistent or progressive EBV+ PTLD as set forth in the 2017 National Comprehensive Cancer Network Guidelines, future guidelines from governmental agencies, professional societies, practice management groups, private health/science foundations and other organizations could lead to decreased ability of developing our product candidates, or decreased use of our products once approved by applicable regulatory authorities.

We may not successfully identify, acquire, develop or commercialize new potential product candidates.

Part of our business strategy is to expand our product candidate pipeline by identifying and validating new product candidates, which we may develop ourselves, in-license or otherwise acquire from others. In addition, in the event that our existing product candidates do not receive regulatory approval or are not successfully commercialized, then the success of our business will depend on our ability to expand our product pipeline through in-licensing or other acquisitions. We may be unable to identify relevant product candidates. If we do identify such product candidates, we may be unable to reach acceptable terms with any third party from which we desire to in-license or acquire them.

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Bayer is generally responsible for the conduct and funding of the development and commercialization of ATA2271 and ATA3271.

Pursuant to the Bayer License Agreement, Bayer holds an exclusive, field-limited license to ATA2271 and ATA3271. As a result, other than the development of ATA2271 through Phase 1, Bayer is generally responsible for the development and obtaining and maintaining regulatory approval of ATA2271 and ATA3271.

We do not control the development activities being conducted or that may be conducted in the future by Bayer, including, but not limited to, the timing of initiation, termination or completion of clinical trials, the analysis of data arising out of those clinical trials or the timing of release of data concerning those clinical trials, which may impact our ability to report on Bayer’s results. Bayer may conduct these activities more slowly or in a different manner than we would if we controlled the development of ATA2271 after Phase 1 and ATA3271. Bayer is responsible for submitting future applications to the FDA and other regulatory authorities for approval of ATA2271 and ATA3271 and will be the owner of marketing approvals issued by the FDA and other regulatory authorities for ATA2271 and ATA3271, if approved. If the FDA or other regulatory authorities approve ATA2271 and/or ATA3271, Bayer will also be responsible for the marketing and sale of the resulting product. However, we cannot control whether Bayer will devote sufficient attention and resources to the development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 or will proceed in an expeditious manner. Even if the FDA or other regulatory agencies approve ATA2271 and/or ATA3271, Bayer may elect not to proceed with the commercialization of the resulting product in one or more countries.

We are currently negotiating a separate manufacturing and supply agreement with Bayer for the supply of allogenic mesothelin-directed CAR T-cell therapies for clinical trials. Delays in the negotiation and execution of this manufacturing and supply agreement would result in a delay in the ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 programs and would delay and could prevent us from obtaining revenues for this product candidate.

Disputes may arise between us and Bayer, which may delay or cause the termination of any clinical trials of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271, result in significant litigation or cause Bayer to act in a manner that is not in our best interest. The costs associated with the continuing development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 may cause Bayer to reconsider the terms of its investment and seek to amend or terminate our agreement or to suspend the development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271. If development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 does not progress for these or any other reasons, we would not receive milestone payments or royalties on product sales from Bayer with respect to ATA2271 and/or ATA3271. If the results of one or more clinical trials with ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 do not meet Bayer’s expectations at any time, Bayer may elect to terminate further development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 or certain of the potential clinical trials for ATA2271 and/or ATA3271, even if the actual number of patients treated at that time is relatively small. In addition, Bayer generally has discretion to elect whether to pursue or abandon the development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 and may terminate our strategic alliance in whole or on a product-by-product basis for any reason upon 120 days prior notice. If Bayer abandons ATA2271 and/or ATA3271, it would result in a delay in or could prevent us from commercializing ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 and would delay and could prevent us from obtaining revenues for this product candidate.

If Bayer abandons development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 prior to regulatory approval or if it elects not to proceed with commercialization of the resulting product following regulatory approval, we would have to seek a new partner for development or commercialization, curtail or abandon that development or commercialization, or undertake and fund the development of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 or commercialization of the resulting product ourselves. If we seek a new partner but are unable to do so on acceptable terms, or at all, or do not have sufficient funds to conduct the development or commercialization of ATA2271 and/or ATA3271 ourselves, we would have to curtail or abandon that development or commercialization, which could harm our business.

We may not realize the benefits of strategic alliances that we may form in the future or of potential future product acquisitions or licenses.

We may desire to form additional strategic alliances, create joint ventures or collaborations, enter into licensing arrangements with third parties or acquire products or business, in each case that we believe will complement or augment our existing business. These relationships or transactions, or those like them, may require us to incur nonrecurring and other charges, increase our near- and long-term expenditures, issue securities that dilute our existing stockholders, reduce the potential profitability of the products that are the subject of the relationship or disrupt our management and business. In addition, we face significant competition in seeking appropriate strategic alliances and transactions and the negotiation process is time-consuming and complex and there can be no assurance that we can enter into any of these transactions even if we desire to do so. Moreover, we may not be successful in our efforts to establish a strategic alliance or other alternative arrangements for any future product candidates and programs because our research and development pipeline may be insufficient, our product candidates and programs may be deemed to be at too early a stage of development for collaborative effort and third parties may not view our product candidates and programs as having the requisite potential to demonstrate a positive benefit/risk profile. Any delays in entering into new strategic alliances agreements related to our product candidates could also delay the development and commercialization of our product candidates and reduce their competitiveness even if they reach the market.

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If we license products or acquire businesses, we may not be able to realize the benefit of these transactions if we are unable to successfully integrate them with our existing operations and company culture. We cannot be certain that, following an acquisition or license, we will achieve the financial or strategic results that would justify the transaction.

Risks Related to Manufacturing

We are subject to a multitude of manufacturing risks, any of which could substantially increase our costs and limit supply of our product candidates.

Concurrently with the in-license of our existing product candidates, we acquired manufacturing process know-how and, in some cases, inventory of process intermediates and clinical materials from our partners. Transferring manufacturing processes, testing and associated know-how is complex and involves review and incorporation of both documented and undocumented processes that may have evolved over time. In addition, transferring production to different facilities may require utilization of new or different processes to meet the specific requirements of a given facility. Each stage is retroactively and concurrently verified to be compliant with appropriate regulations. As a result, there is a risk that all relevant know-how was not adequately transferred to us from our partners or that previous execution was not compliant with applicable regulations.

In addition, we need to conduct significant development and scale-up work to transfer these processes and manufacture each of our product candidates for various studies, clinical studies and commercial launch readiness. To the extent we elect to transfer manufacturing within our network, we are required to demonstrate that the product manufactured in the new or “receiving” facility is comparable to the product manufactured in the original or “sending” facility. The inability to demonstrate to each of the applicable regulatory authorities that comparable drug product was manufactured could delay the development of our product candidates.

The processes by which our product candidates are manufactured were initially developed by our partners for clinical purposes. We intend to evolve the existing processes with our partners to support advanced clinical studies and commercialization requirements. Developing commercially viable manufacturing processes is a difficult and uncertain task, and there are risks associated with scaling to the level required for advanced clinical studies or commercialization, including cost overruns, potential problems with process scale-up, process reproducibility, stability issues, consistency and timely availability of reagents or raw materials. The manufacturing facilities in which our product candidates will be made could be adversely affected by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, earthquakes and other natural or man-made disasters, equipment failures, labor shortages, power failures, and numerous other factors. In addition, there have been, and there may continue to be, interruptions in the supply of leukapheresis collections related to the COVID-19 pandemic, which supply raw materials used in our product candidates. If we are unable to obtain such raw materials or other necessary raw materials in a timely manner, our business operations and manufacturing capabilities could be adversely affected.

The process of manufacturing cellular therapies is susceptible to product loss due to contamination, equipment failure or improper installation or operation of equipment, or vendor or operator error. Even minor deviations from normal manufacturing and distribution processes for any of our product candidates could result in reduced production yields, impact to key product quality attributes, and other supply disruptions. Product defects can also occur unexpectedly. If microbial, viral or other contaminations are discovered in our product candidates or in the manufacturing facilities in which our product candidates are made, these manufacturing facilities may need to be closed for an extended period of time to allow us to investigate and remedy the contamination. Because our T-cell immunotherapy product candidates are manufactured from the blood of third-party donors, the process of manufacturing is susceptible to the availability of the third-party donor material. The process of developing products that can be commercialized may be particularly challenging, even if they otherwise prove to be safe and effective. The manufacture of these product candidates involves complex processes. Some of these processes require specialized equipment and highly skilled and trained personnel. The process of manufacturing these product candidates will be susceptible to additional risks, given the need to maintain aseptic conditions throughout the manufacturing process. Contamination with viruses or other pathogens in either the donor material or materials utilized in the manufacturing process or ingress of microbiological material at any point in the process may result in contaminated or unusable product. This type of contaminations could result in delays in the manufacture of products which could result in delays in the development of our product candidates. These contaminations could also increase the risk of adverse side effects. Furthermore, our allogeneic products ultimately consist of many individual cell lines, each with a different HLA profile. As a result, the selection and distribution of the appropriate cell line for therapeutic use in a patient requires close coordination between clinical operations, supply chain and quality assurance personnel.

Any adverse developments affecting manufacturing operations for our product candidates may result in lot failures, inventory shortages, shipment delays, product withdrawals or recalls or other interruptions in the supply of our drug product which could delay the development of our product candidates. We may also have to write off inventory, incur other charges and expenses for supply of drug product that fails to meet specifications, undertake costly remediation efforts, or seek more costly manufacturing alternatives. Inability to meet the demand for our product candidates could damage our reputation and the reputation of our products among physicians, healthcare payors, patients or the medical community that supports our product development efforts, including hospitals and outpatient clinics.

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We intend to manufacture a majority of our product candidates ourselves. Delays in receiving regulatory approvals for product candidates produced in our manufacturing facility could delay our development plans and thereby limit our ability to generate revenues.

The research and development and process and analytical development labs within our manufacturing facility in Thousand Oaks, California are currently supporting preclinical development activities. The facility commissioning and qualification activities required to support production at our facility were completed in 2018. Product-specific qualification to support clinical development is complete and commercial production qualification activities are ongoing. If the appropriate regulatory approvals for manufacturing product candidates in our facility are delayed, we may not be able to manufacture sufficient quantities of our product candidates, which would limit our development activities and our opportunities for growth.

In addition to the similar manufacturing risks described in “Risks Related to Our Dependence on Third Parties,” our manufacturing facility will be subject to ongoing, periodic inspection by the FDA, EMA or other comparable regulatory agencies to ensure compliance with cGMP and GTP. Our failure to follow and document our adherence to these regulations or other regulatory requirements may lead to significant delays in the availability of products for clinical or, in the future, commercial use, may result in the termination of or a hold on a clinical study, or may delay or prevent filing or approval of commercial marketing applications for our product candidates. We also may encounter problems with the following:

Failure to comply with applicable regulations could also result in sanctions being imposed on us, including fines, injunctions, civil penalties, a requirement to suspend or put on hold one or more of our clinical studies, failure of regulatory authorities to grant marketing approval of our product candidates, delays, suspension or withdrawal of approvals, license revocation, seizures or recalls of product candidates, operating restrictions and criminal prosecutions, any of which could harm our business.

Developing advanced manufacturing techniques and process controls is required to fully utilize our facility. Without further investment, advances in manufacturing techniques may render our facility and equipment inadequate or obsolete.

A number of the product candidates in our portfolio, if approved by applicable regulatory authorities, may require significant commercial supply to meet market demand. In these cases, we may need to increase, or “scale up,” the production process by a significant factor over the initial level of production. If we are unable to do so, are delayed, or if the cost of this scale up is not economically feasible for us or we cannot find a third-party supplier, we may not be able to produce our product candidates in a sufficient quantity to meet future demand.

If our sole clinical or commercial manufacturing facility or our CMO is damaged or destroyed or production at these facilities is otherwise interrupted, our business would be negatively affected.

If any manufacturing facility in our manufacturing network, or the equipment in these facilities, is either damaged or destroyed, we may not be able to quickly or inexpensively replace our manufacturing capacity or replace it at all. In the event of a temporary or protracted loss of a facility or its equipment, we may not be able to transfer manufacturing to a third party in the time required to maintain supply. Even if we could transfer manufacturing to a third party, the shift would likely be expensive and time-consuming, particularly since the new facility would need to comply with the necessary regulatory requirements or may require regulatory approval before selling any products manufactured at that facility. Such an event could delay our clinical studies or reduce our commercial product sales.

Currently, we maintain insurance coverage against damage to our property and to cover business interruption and research and development restoration expenses. However, our insurance coverage may not reimburse us, or may not be sufficient to reimburse us, for any expenses or losses we may suffer. We may be unable to meet our requirements for our product candidates if there were a catastrophic event or failure of our current manufacturing facility or processes.

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Risks Related to Our Dependence on Third Parties

Maintaining clinical and commercial timelines is dependent on our end-to-end supply chain network to support manufacturing; if we experience problems with our third party suppliers we may delay development and/or commercialization of our product candidates.

We rely in part on our CMOs or our partners for the current production of our product candidates and the acquisition of materials incorporated in or used in the manufacturing or testing of our product candidates. Our CMOs or partners are not our employees, and except for remedies available to us under our agreements with our CMOs or partners, we cannot directly control whether or not they devote sufficient time and resources, including experienced staff, to the manufacturing of supply for our ongoing clinical, nonclinical and preclinical programs. Our CMOs for tab-cel^® will need to be prepared to undergo pre-approval inspection in connection with our anticipated BLA, and we cannot be certain that we will be able to adequately support them through such inspection nor that they will successfully pass any such inspection.

To meet our projected supply needs for clinical and commercial materials to support our activities through regulatory approval and commercial manufacturing of tab-cel^®, ATA188, any product candidates resulting from our next-generation CAR T programs or any other product candidates, we will need to transition the manufacturing of these materials to a CMO or our own facility. Regardless of where production occurs, we will need to develop relationships with suppliers of critical starting materials or reagents, increase the scale of production and demonstrate comparability of the material produced at these facilities to the material that was previously produced. Transferring manufacturing processes and know-how is complex and involves review and incorporation of both documented and undocumented processes that may have evolved over time.

In addition, transferring production to different facilities may require utilization of new or different processes to meet the specific requirements of a given facility. We would expect additional comparability work will also need to be conducted to support the transfer of certain manufacturing processes and process improvements. We cannot be certain that all relevant know-how and data has been adequately incorporated into the manufacturing process until the completion of studies (and the related evaluations) intended to demonstrate the comparability of material previously produced with that generated by our CMO.

If we are not able to successfully transfer and produce comparable product candidates, our ability to further develop and manufacture our product candidates may be negatively impacted.

While our manufacturing facility in Thousand Oaks, California provides us with flexibility within our manufacturing network, we still may need to identify additional CMOs for continued production of supply for some of our product candidates. Given the nature of our manufacturing processes, the number of CMOs who possess the requisite skill and capability to manufacture our T-cell immunotherapy product candidates is limited. We have not yet identified alternate suppliers in the event the current CMOs that we utilize are unable to scale production, or if we otherwise experience any problems with them.

Manufacturing cellular therapies is complicated and tightly regulated by the FDA and comparable regulatory authorities around the world, and although alternative third-party suppliers with the necessary manufacturing and regulatory expertise and facilities exist, it could be expensive and take a significant amount of time to arrange for alternative suppliers, transfer manufacturing procedures to these alternative suppliers, and demonstrate comparability of material produced by such new suppliers. New manufacturers of any product candidate or intermediate would be required to qualify under applicable regulatory requirements. These manufacturers may not be able to manufacture our product candidates at costs, or in sufficient quantities, or in a timely manner necessary to complete development of our product candidates or make commercially successful products. If we are unable to arrange for alternative third-party manufacturing sources, or to do so on commercially reasonable terms or in a timely manner, we may not be able to complete development of our product candidates, or market or distribute them. In addition, should the FDA or comparable regulatory authorities not agree with our product candidate specifications and comparability assessments for these materials, further clinical development of our product candidate could be substantially delayed and we would incur substantial additional expenses.

Reliance on third-party manufacturers entails risks to which we would not be subject if we manufactured product candidates ourselves, including reliance on the third party for regulatory compliance and quality assurance, the possibility that the third-party manufacturer does not maintain the financial resources to meet its obligations under the manufacturing agreement, the possibility of breach of the manufacturing agreement by the third party because of factors beyond our control, including a failure to manufacture our product candidates or any products we may eventually commercialize in accordance with our specifications, misappropriation of our proprietary information, including our trade secrets and know-how, and the possibility of termination or nonrenewal of the agreement by the third party, based on its own business priorities, at a time that is costly or damaging to us. In addition, the FDA and other regulatory authorities require that our product candidates and any products that we may eventually commercialize be manufactured according to cGMP, cGTP and similar regulatory jurisdictional standards. These requirements include, among other things, quality control, quality assurance and the maintenance of records and documentation. The FDA or similar foreign regulatory agencies may also implement new standards at any time or change their interpretations and enforcement of existing standards for manufacture,

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packaging or testing of products. We have limited control over our manufacturers’ compliance with these regulations and standards and although we monitor our manufacturers, we depend on them to provide honest and accurate information. Any failure by our third-party manufacturers to comply with cGMP or cGTP or failure to scale up manufacturing processes, including any failure to deliver sufficient quantities of product candidates in a timely manner, could lead to a delay in, or failure to obtain, regulatory approval of any of our product candidates. In addition, such failure could be the basis for the FDA to issue a warning letter, withdraw approvals for product candidates previously granted to us, or take other regulatory or legal action, including recall or seizure of outside supplies of the product candidate, total or partial suspension of production, suspension of ongoing clinical studies, refusal to approve pending applications or supplemental applications, detention or product, refusal to permit the import or export of products, injunction or imposing civil and criminal penalties.

We depend on third party suppliers for key materials used to produce our product candidates. Any significant disruption in our supplier relationships could harm our business. Any significant delay in the supply of a product candidate for an ongoing clinical study could considerably delay initiation or completion of our clinical studies, product testing and potential regulatory approval of our product candidates. If raw materials or components cannot be purchased or fail to meet approved specifications, the commercial launch of our product candidates could be delayed, or there could be a shortage in supply, which could impair our ability to generate revenues from the sale of our product candidates.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

If we are unable to obtain and maintain sufficient intellectual property protection for our product candidates, or if the scope of the intellectual property protection is not sufficiently broad, our ability to commercialize our product candidates successfully and to compete effectively may be adversely affected.

We rely upon a combination of patents, trademarks, trade secrets and confidentiality agreements – both that we own or possess or that are owned or possessed by our partners that are in-licensed to us – to protect the intellectual property related to our technology and product candidates. When we refer to “our” technologies, inventions, patents, patent applications or other intellectual property rights, we are referring to both the rights that we own or possess as well as those that we in-license, many of which are critical to our intellectual property protection and our business. For example, the product candidates and platform technology we have licensed from our partners are protected primarily by patent or patent applications of our partners that we have licensed and as confidential know-how and trade secrets. If the intellectual property that we rely on is not adequately protected, competitors may be able to use our technologies and erode or negate any competitive advantage we may have.

The patentability of inventions and the validity, enforceability and scope of patents in the biotechnology field is uncertain because it involves complex legal, scientific and factual considerations, and it has in recent years been the subject of significant litigation. Moreover, the standards applied by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and non-U.S. patent offices in granting patents are not always applied uniformly or predictably. For example, there is no uniform worldwide policy regarding patentable subject matter or the scope of claims allowable in biotechnology patents.

There is no assurance that all potentially relevant prior art relating to our patents and patent applications is known to us or has been found in the instances where searching was done. We may be unaware of prior art that could be used to invalidate an issued patent or prevent a pending patent application from issuing as a patent. There also may be prior art of which we are aware, but which we do not believe affects the validity or enforceability of a claim of one of our patents or patent applications, which may, nonetheless, ultimately be found to affect the validity or enforceability of such claim. As a consequence of these and other factors, our patent applications may fail to result in issued patents with claims that cover our product candidates in the U.S. or in other countries.

Even if patents have issued or do successfully issue from patent applications, and even if these patents cover our product candidates, third parties may challenge the validity, enforceability or scope thereof, which may result in these patents being narrowed, invalidated or held to be unenforceable. No assurance can be given that if challenged, our patents would be declared by a court to be valid or enforceable.

Even if unchallenged, our patents and patent applications or other intellectual property rights may not adequately protect our intellectual property, provide exclusivity for our product candidates or prevent others from designing around our claims. The possibility exists that others will develop products on an independent basis which have the same effect as our product candidates and which do not infringe our patents or other intellectual property rights, or that others will design around the claims of patents that we have had issued that cover our product candidates. If the breadth or strength of protection provided by our patents and patent applications with respect to our product candidates is threatened, it could jeopardize our ability to commercialize our product candidates and dissuade companies from collaborating with us.

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We may also desire to seek a license from a third party who owns intellectual property that may be useful for providing exclusivity for our product candidates, or for providing the ability to develop and commercialize a product candidate in an unrestricted manner. There is no guarantee that we will be able to obtain a license from such a third party on commercially reasonable terms, or at all.

In addition, the USPTO and various foreign governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other similar provisions during the patent application process. While an inadvertent lapse can in many cases be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules, there are situations in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction.

We and our partners have filed a number of patent applications covering our product candidates or methods of using or making those product candidates. We cannot offer any assurances about which, if any, patents will be issued with respect to these pending patent applications, the breadth of any such patents that are ultimately issued or whether any issued patents will be found invalid and unenforceable or will be threatened by third parties. Because patent applications in the U.S. and most other countries are confidential for a period of time after filing, and some remain so until issued, we cannot be certain that we or our partners were the first to file any patent application related to a product candidate. We or our partners may also become involved in proceedings regarding our patents, including patent infringement lawsuits, interference or derivation proceedings, oppositions, and inter partes and post-grant review proceedings before the USPTO the European Patent Office and other non-U.S. patent offices.

Even if granted, patents have a limited lifespan. In the U.S., the natural expiration of a patent generally occurs 20 years after it is filed. Although various extensions may be available if certain conditions are met, the life of a patent and the protection it affords is limited. If we encounter delays in our clinical studies or in obtaining regulatory approvals, the period of time during which we could exclusively market any of our product candidates under patent protection, if approved, could be reduced. Even if patents covering our product candidates are obtained, once the patent life has expired for a product, we may be vulnerable to competition from biosimilar products, as we may be unable to prevent competitors from entering the market with a product that is similar or identical to our product candidates.

Furthermore, the research resulting in certain of our licensed patent rights and technology was funded by the U.S. government. As a result, the government has certain rights to these patent rights and technology. When new technologies are developed with government funding, the government generally obtains certain rights in any resulting patents, including a non-exclusive license authorizing the government to practice the invention for or on behalf of the U.S. These rights may permit the government to disclose confidential information on which we rely to third parties and to exercise march-in rights to use or allow third parties to use our licensed technology. The government can exercise its march-in rights if it determines that action is necessary because we fail to achieve practical application of the government-funded technology, because action is necessary to alleviate health or safety needs, to meet requirements of federal regulations or to give preference to U.S. industry. In addition, our rights in any inventions that result from government-funded research may be subject to certain requirements to manufacture products embodying these inventions in the U.S.

If we are sued for infringing the intellectual property rights of third parties, the resulting litigation could be costly and time-consuming and could prevent or delay our development and commercialization efforts.

Our commercial success depends, in part, on us and our partners not infringing the patents and proprietary rights of third parties. There is a substantial amount of litigation and other adversarial proceedings, both within and outside the U.S., involving patent and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, including patent infringement lawsuits, interference or derivation proceedings, oppositions, and inter partes and post-grant review proceedings before the USPTO and non-U.S. patent offices. Numerous U.S. and non-U.S. issued patents and pending patent applications owned by third parties exist in the fields in which we are developing and may develop our product candidates. As the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries expand and more patents are issued, the risk increases that our product candidates may be subject to claims of infringement of third parties’ patent rights, as it may not always be clear to industry participants, including us, which patents cover various types of products or methods of use. The coverage of patents is subject to interpretation by the courts, and the interpretation is not always uniform or predictable.

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Third parties may assert infringement claims against us based on existing or future intellectual property rights, alleging that we are employing their proprietary technology without authorization. There may be third-party patents or patent applications with claims to materials, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the use or manufacturing of our product candidates that we failed to identify. For example, patent applications covering our product candidates could have been filed by others without our knowledge, since these applications generally remain confidential for some period of time after their filing date. Even pending patent applications that have been published, including some of which we are aware, could be later amended in a manner that could cover our product candidates or their use or manufacture. In addition, we may have analyzed patents or patent applications of third parties that we believe are relevant to our activities and believe that we are free to operate in relation to any of our product candidates, but our competitors may obtain issued claims, including in patents we consider to be unrelated, which may block our efforts or potentially result in any of our product candidates or our activities infringing their claims.

If we or our partners are sued for patent infringement, we would need to demonstrate that our product candidates, products and methods either do not infringe the patent claims of the relevant patent or that the patent claims are invalid, and we may not be able to do this. Proving that a patent is invalid is difficult and even if we are successful in the relevant proceedings, we may incur substantial costs and the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel could be diverted from other activities. If any issued third-party patents were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover aspects of our materials, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment, we could be forced, including by court order, to cease developing, manufacturing or commercializing the relevant product candidate until the relevant patent expired. Alternatively, we may desire or be required to obtain a license from such third party in order to use the infringing technology and to continue developing, manufacturing or marketing the infringing product candidate. However, we may not be able to obtain any required license on commercially reasonably terms, or at all. Even if we were able to obtain a license, the rights may be nonexclusive, which could result in our competitors gaining access to the same intellectual property licensed to us.

We may face claims that we misappropriated the confidential information or trade secrets of a third party. If we are found to have misappropriated a third party’s trade secrets, we may be prevented from further using these trade secrets, which could limit our ability to develop our product candidates.

Defending against intellectual property claims could be costly and time consuming, regardless of the outcome. Thus, even if we were to ultimately prevail, or to settle before a final judgment, any litigation could burden us with substantial unanticipated costs. In addition, litigation or threatened litigation could result in significant demands on the time and attention of our management team, distracting them from the pursuit of other company business. During the course of any intellectual property litigation, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, rulings on motions, and other interim proceedings in the litigation and these announcements may have negative impact on the perceived value of our product candidates, programs or intellectual property. In the event of a successful intellectual property claim against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees if we are found to have willfully infringed a patent, or to redesign our infringing product candidates, which may be impossible or require substantial time and monetary expenditure. In addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel and the parties making claims against us may obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could impose limitations on the conduct of our business. We may also elect to enter into license agreements in order to settle patent infringement claims prior to litigation, and any of these license agreements may require us to pay royalties and other fees that could be significant. As a result of all of the foregoing, any actual or threatened intellectual property claim could prevent us from developing or commercializing a product candidate or force us to cease some aspect of our business operations.

We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting, enforcing and defending patents on all of our product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive. Our intellectual property rights in certain countries outside the U.S. may be less extensive than those in the U.S. In addition, the laws of certain foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as laws in the U.S. Consequently, we and our partners may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in countries outside the U.S., or from selling or importing infringing products made using our inventions in and into the U.S. or other jurisdictions. Competitors may use our technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection or where we do not have exclusive rights under the relevant patents to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise-infringing products to territories where we and our partners have patent protection but where enforcement is not as strong as that in the U.S. These infringing products may compete with our product candidates in jurisdictions where we or our partners have no issued patents or where we do not have exclusive rights under the relevant patents, or our patent claims and other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from so competing.

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Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to biopharmaceuticals, which could make it difficult for us and our partners to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our intellectual property rights generally. Proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our attention from other aspects of our business, could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly, could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing, and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us or our partners. We or our partners may not prevail in any lawsuits that we or our licensors initiate, and even if we or our licensors are successful the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful.

We have in-licensed a significant portion of our intellectual property from our partners. If we breach any of our license agreements with these partners, we could lose the ability to continue the development and potential commercialization of one or more of our product candidates.

We hold rights under license agreements with our partners, including MSK, QIMR Berghofer and Moffitt that are important to our business. Our discovery and development platform is built, in part, around patent rights in-licensed from our partners. Under our existing license agreements, we are subject to various obligations, including diligence obligations with respect to development and commercialization activities, payment obligations upon achievement of certain milestones and royalties on product sales. If there is any conflict, dispute, disagreement or issue of nonperformance between us and our counterparties regarding our rights or obligations under these license agreements, including any conflict, dispute or disagreement arising from our failure to satisfy diligence or payment obligations, we may be liable to pay damages and our counterparties may have a right to terminate the affected license. The termination of any license agreement with one of our partners would materially adversely affect our ability to utilize the intellectual property that is subject to that license agreement in our drug discovery and development efforts, our ability to enter into future collaboration, licensing and/or marketing agreements for one or more affected product candidates and our ability to commercialize the affected product candidates. Furthermore, a disagreement under any of these license agreements may harm our relationship with the partner, which could have negative impacts on other aspects of our business.

We may become involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our intellectual property, which could be expensive, time-consuming and unsuccessful and have a material adverse effect on the success of our business.

Third parties may infringe our patents or misappropriate or otherwise violate our intellectual property rights. Our patent applications cannot be enforced against third parties practicing the technology claimed in these applications unless and until a patent issues from the applications, and then only to the extent the issued claims cover the technology. In the future, we or our partners may elect to initiate legal proceedings to enforce or defend our or our partners’ intellectual property rights, to protect our or our partners’ trade secrets or to determine the validity or scope of our intellectual property rights. Any claims that we or our partners assert against perceived infringers could also provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us or our partners alleging that we or our partners infringe their intellectual property rights or that our intellectual property rights are invalid.

Interference or derivation proceedings provoked by third parties, brought by us or our partners, or brought by the USPTO or any non-U.S. patent authority may be necessary to determine the priority of inventions or matters of inventorship with respect to our patents or patent applications. We or our partners may also become involved in other proceedings, such as reexamination or opposition proceedings, inter partes review, post-grant review or other pre-issuance or post-grant proceedings in the USPTO or its foreign counterparts relating to our intellectual property or the intellectual property of others. An unfavorable outcome in any of these proceedings could require us or our partners to cease using the related technology and commercializing our product candidates, or to attempt to license rights to it from the prevailing party. Our business could be harmed if the prevailing party does not offer us or our partners a license on commercially reasonable terms if any license is offered at all. Even if we or our licensors obtain a license, it may be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us or our licensors. In addition, if the breadth or strength of protection provided by our patents and patent applications is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to license, develop or commercialize current or future product candidates.

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Any intellectual property proceedings can be expensive and time-consuming. Our or our partners’ adversaries in these proceedings may have the ability to dedicate substantially greater resources to prosecuting these legal actions than we or our partners can. Accordingly, despite our or our partners’ efforts, we or our partners may not be able to prevent third parties from infringing upon or misappropriating our intellectual property rights, particularly in countries where the laws may not protect our rights as fully as in the U.S. Even if we are successful in the relevant proceedings, we may incur substantial costs and the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel could be diverted from other activities. We could be found liable for monetary damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees, if we are found to have willfully infringed a patent. In addition, in an infringement proceeding, a court may decide that one or more of our patents is invalid or unenforceable, in whole or in part, or may refuse to stop the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question. An adverse result in any litigation proceeding could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated, held unenforceable or interpreted narrowly.

Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments.

If we are unable to protect the confidentiality of our trade secrets and other proprietary information, the value of our technology could be materially adversely affected and our business could be harmed.

In addition to seeking the protection afforded by patents, we rely on trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect proprietary know-how that is not patentable or that we elect not to patent, processes for which patents are difficult to enforce, and other elements of our technology, discovery and development processes that involve proprietary know-how, information or technology that is not covered by patents. The T-cell immunotherapy product candidates and platform technology we have licensed from our partners are protected primarily as confidential know-how and trade secrets. Any disclosure to or misappropriation by third parties of our confidential proprietary information could enable competitors to quickly duplicate or surpass our technological achievements, including by enabling them to develop and commercialize products substantially similar to or competitive with our product candidates, thus eroding our competitive position in the market.

Trade secrets can be difficult to protect. We seek to protect our proprietary technology and processes, in part, by entering into confidentiality agreements and invention assignment agreements with our employees, consultants, and outside scientific advisors, contractors and collaborators. These agreements are designed to protect our proprietary information. Although we use reasonable efforts to protect our trade secrets, our employees, consultants, contractors, or outside scientific advisors might intentionally or inadvertently disclose our trade secrets or confidential, proprietary information to competitors. In addition, competitors may otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or independently develop substantially equivalent information and techniques. If any of our confidential proprietary information were to be lawfully obtained or independently developed by a competitor, we would have no right to prevent such competitor from using that technology or information to compete with us, which could harm our competitive position.

Enforcing a claim that a third party illegally obtained and is using any of our trade secrets is expensive and time consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, the laws of certain foreign countries do not protect proprietary rights such as trade secrets to the same extent or in the same manner as the laws of the U.S. Misappropriation or unauthorized disclosure of our trade secrets to third parties could impair our competitive advantage in the market and could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Risks Related to Commercialization of Our Product Candidates

Our commercial success depends upon attaining significant market acceptance of our product candidates, if approved, among physicians, patients, healthcare payors and the medical community, including hospitals and outpatient clinics.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for any of our product candidates that we may develop or acquire in the future, the product may not gain market acceptance among physicians, healthcare payors, patients or the medical community that supports our product development efforts, including hospitals and outpatient clinics. Market acceptance of any of our product candidates for which we receive approval depends on a number of factors, including:

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Even if we are able to commercialize our product candidates, the products may not receive coverage and adequate reimbursement from third-party payors in the U.S. and in other countries in which we seek to commercialize our products, which could harm our business.

Our ability to commercialize any product successfully will depend, in part, on the extent to which coverage and adequate reimbursement for these products and related treatments will be available from government health administration authorities, private health insurers and other organizations.

Government authorities and third-party payors, such as private health insurers and health maintenance organizations, determine which medications they will cover and establish reimbursement levels. A primary trend in the healthcare industry is cost containment. Government authorities and third-party payors have attempted to control costs by limiting coverage and the amount of reimbursement for particular medications. Increasingly, third-party payors are requiring that drug companies provide them with predetermined discounts from list prices and are challenging the prices charged for medical products. Third-party payors may also seek additional clinical evidence, beyond the data required to obtain regulatory approval, demonstrating clinical benefits and value in specific patient populations before covering our products for those patients. We cannot be sure that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be available for any product that we commercialize and, if reimbursement is available, what the level of reimbursement will be. In some countries such as the U.S., greater cost-shifting from the payor to the patient is also a trend, and higher patient copayments or other administrative burdens could lead to reduced demand from patients or healthcare professionals. This could particularly be the case in a challenging economic climate, such as during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Coverage and reimbursement may impact the demand for, or the price of, any product candidate for which we obtain regulatory approval, and ultimately our ability to successfully commercialize any product candidate for which we obtain regulatory approval.

There may be significant delays in obtaining coverage and reimbursement for newly approved drugs, and coverage may be more limited than the purposes for which the drug is approved by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Moreover, eligibility for coverage and reimbursement does not imply that any drug will be paid for in all cases or at a rate that covers our costs, including research, development, manufacture, sale and distribution. Interim reimbursement levels for new drugs, if applicable, may also not be sufficient to cover our costs and may only be temporary. Reimbursement rates may vary according to the use of the drug and the clinical setting in which it is used, may be based on reimbursement levels already set for lower cost drugs and may be incorporated into existing payments for other services. Net prices for drugs may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or private payors and by any future relaxation of laws that presently restrict imports of drugs from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the U.S. Coverage and reimbursement policies for drug products can differ significantly from payor to payor as there is no uniform policy of coverage and reimbursement for drug products among third-party payors in the U.S. Third-party payors in the U.S. often rely upon Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement policies. There may be significant delays in obtaining coverage and reimbursement as the process of determining coverage and reimbursement is often time consuming and costly which will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage or adequate reimbursement will be obtained. It is difficult to predict at this time what government authorities and third-party payors will decide with respect to coverage and reimbursement for our drug products. Our inability to promptly obtain coverage and profitable reimbursement rates from both government-funded and private payors for any approved products that we develop could have a material adverse effect on our operating results, our ability to raise capital needed to commercialize products and our overall financial condition.

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Current and future legislation, including potentially unfavorable pricing regulations or other healthcare reform initiatives, may increase the difficulty and cost for us to obtain regulatory approval of and commercialize our product candidates and affect the prices we may obtain.

The regulations that govern, among other things, regulatory approvals, coverage, pricing and reimbursement for new drug products vary widely from country to country. In the U.S. and some foreign jurisdictions, there have been a number of legislative and regulatory changes and proposed changes regarding the healthcare system that could prevent or delay regulatory approval of our product candidates, restrict or regulate post-approval activities and affect our ability to successfully sell any product candidates for which we obtain regulatory approval. In particular, in March 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, collectively, the Affordable Care Act, was enacted, which substantially changed the way healthcare is financed by both governmental and private insurers, and continues to significantly impact the U.S. pharmaceutical industry. The Affordable Care Act and its implementing regulations, among other things, addressed a new methodology by which rebates owed by manufacturers under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program are calculated for certain drugs and biologics, including our product candidates, increased the minimum Medicaid rebates owed by manufacturers under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program, extended the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program to utilization of prescriptions of individuals enrolled in Medicaid managed care organizations, subjected manufacturers to new annual fees and taxes for certain branded prescription drugs, provided incentives to programs that increase the federal government’s comparative effectiveness research and established a new Medicare Part D coverage gap discount program.

Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted in the U.S. since the Affordable Care Act was enacted. In August 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011, among other things, created measures for spending reductions by the U.S. Congress. A Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction, tasked with recommending a targeted deficit reduction of at least $1.2 trillion for the years 2013 through 2021, was unable to reach required goals, thereby triggering the legislation’s automatic reduction to several government programs. This includes aggregate reductions of Medicare payments to providers of 2% per fiscal year, which went into effect in April 2013, and, due to subsequent legislative amendments, will remain in effect through 2030 unless additional Congressional action is taken. COVID-19 relief legislation suspended the 2% Medicare sequester from May 1, 2020 through March 31, 2021, and extended the sequester by one year, through 2030. In January 2013, the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (the ATRA) was enacted which, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to several providers, including hospitals and outpatient clinics, and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years.

There remain judicial and Congressional challenges to numerous elements of the Affordable Care Act, as well as efforts by both the executive and legislative branches of the federal government to repeal or replace certain aspects of the Affordable Care Act. For example, President Trump signed Executive Orders designed to delay or eliminate the implementation of certain provisions of the Affordable Care Act or otherwise circumvent some of the requirements for health insurance mandated by the Affordable Care Act. In addition, the U.S. Congress has considered legislation that would repeal or repeal and replace all or part of the Affordable Care Act. While the U.S. Congress has not passed comprehensive repeal legislation, it has enacted laws that modify certain provisions of the Affordable Care Act, such as removing penalties, starting January 1, 2019, for not complying with the Affordable Care Act’s individual mandate to carry health insurance, eliminating the implementation of certain mandated fees, and increasing the point-of-sale discount that is owed by pharmaceutical manufacturers who participate in Medicare Part D. In December 2018, a Texas District Court Judge ruled that the Affordable Care Act is unconstitutional in its entirety because the “individual mandate” was repealed by Congress as part of legislation enacted in 2017, informally titled the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the Tax Act). In December 2019, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5^th Circuit upheld the Texas District Court ruling that the individual mandate was unconstitutional and remanded the case back to the Texas District Court to determine whether the remaining provisions of the Affordable Care Act are invalid as well. The United States Supreme Court is currently reviewing this case, but it is unknown when a decision will be reached.  Although the United States Supreme Court has not yet ruled on the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act, on January 28, 2021, President Biden issued an executive order to initiate a special enrollment period from February 15, 2021 through May 15, 2021 for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the Affordable Care Act marketplace. The executive order also instructs certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their existing policies and rules that limit access to healthcare, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the Affordable Care Act. It is unclear how the United States Supreme Court ruling, other such litigation, and the healthcare form measures of the Biden administration will impact the Affordable Care Act and our business.

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There have been, and likely will continue to be, legislative and regulatory proposals at the foreign, federal and state levels directed at broadening the availability of healthcare and containing or lowering the cost of healthcare. We cannot predict the initiatives that may be adopted in the future. The continuing efforts of governments, insurance companies, managed care organizations and other payors of healthcare services to contain or reduce costs of healthcare, including by imposing price controls, may adversely affect the demand for our product candidates for which we obtain regulatory approval and our ability to set a price that we believe is fair for our products. Any reduction in reimbursement from Medicare or other government programs may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payors.

Legislative and regulatory proposals have been made to expand post-approval requirements and restrict sales and promotional activities for pharmaceutical products. We cannot be sure whether additional legislative changes will be enacted, or whether the U.S. or foreign regulations, guidance or interpretations will be changed, or what the impact of these changes on the regulatory approvals of our product candidates, if any, may be. In the U.S., the European Union and other potentially significant markets for our product candidates, government authorities and third-party payors are increasingly attempting to limit or regulate the price of medical products and services, particularly for new and innovative products and therapies, which has resulted in lower average selling prices for certain products in certain markets. For example, in the U.S., there have been several recent Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. At the federal level, the Trump administration’s budget proposal for the fiscal year 2021 included a $135 billion allowance to support legislative proposals seeking to reduce drug prices, increase competition, lower out-of-pocket drug costs for patients, and increase patient access to lower-cost generic and biosimilar drugs. In March 2020, the Trump administration sent “principles” for drug pricing to Congress, calling for legislation that would, among other things, cap Medicare Part D beneficiary out-of-pocket pharmacy expenses, provide an option to cap Medicare Part D beneficiary monthly out-of-pocket expenses, and place limits on pharmaceutical price increases. Additionally, in May 2018, the Trump administration previously laid out a “Blueprint” to lower drug prices and reduce out of pocket costs of drugs that contained additional proposals to increase manufacturer competition, increase the negotiating power of certain federal healthcare programs, incentivize manufacturers to lower the list price of their products and reduce the out-of-pocket costs of drug products paid by consumers. On July 24, 2020 and September 13, 2020, the Trump administration announced several executive orders related to prescription drug pricing that attempt to implement several of the administration’s proposals.  On November 20, 2020, HHS finalized a regulation removing safe harbor protection for price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, either directly or through pharmacy benefit managers, unless the price reduction is required by law. The rule also creates a new safe harbor for price reductions reflected at the point-of-sale, as well as a safe harbor for certain fixed fee arrangements between pharmacy benefit managers and manufacturers. Further, on November 20, 2020, CMS issued an interim final rule implementing President Trump’s Most Favored Nation executive order, which would tie Medicare Part B payments for certain physician-administered drugs to the lowest price paid in other economically advanced countries, effective January 1, 2021. On December 28, 2020, the U.S. District Court in Northern California issued a nationwide preliminary injunction against implementation of the interim final rule. However, it is unclear whether the Biden administration will work to reverse these measures or pursue similar policy initiatives.  At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. Furthermore, the increased emphasis on managed healthcare in the U.S. and on country and regional pricing and reimbursement controls in the European Union will put additional pressure on product pricing, reimbursement and usage, which may adversely affect our future product sales. These pressures can arise from rules and practices of managed care groups, judicial decisions and governmental laws and regulations related to Medicare, Medicaid and healthcare reform, pharmaceutical reimbursement policies and pricing in general.  Further, it is possible that additional governmental action is taken in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

In addition, there is significant uncertainty regarding the reimbursement status of newly approved healthcare products. We may need to conduct expensive pharmacoeconomic studies in order to demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of our products. If third-party payors do not consider our products to be cost-effective compared to other therapies, the payors may not cover our products after approved as a benefit under their plans or, if they do, the level of payment may not be sufficient to allow us to sell our products on a profitable basis.

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Price controls may be imposed in foreign markets, which may adversely affect our future profitability.

In some countries, particularly member states of the European Union, the pricing of prescription drugs is subject to governmental control. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after receipt of regulatory approval for a product. In addition, there can be considerable pressure by governments and other stakeholders on prices and reimbursement levels, including as part of cost containment measures. Political, economic and regulatory developments may further complicate pricing negotiations, and pricing negotiations may continue after reimbursement has been obtained. Reference pricing used by various European Union member states and parallel distribution, or arbitrage between low-priced and high-priced member states, can further reduce prices. In some countries, we, or our collaborators, may be required to conduct a clinical study or other studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of our product candidates to other available therapies in order to obtain or maintain reimbursement or pricing approval. Publication of discounts by third-party payors or authorities may lead to further pressure on the prices or reimbursement levels within the country of publication and other countries. If reimbursement of our products is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, our business could be adversely affected.

We face substantial competition, which may result in others discovering, developing or commercializing products before or more successfully than we do.

We face competition from numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology enterprises, as well as from academic institutions, government agencies and private and public research institutions for our current product candidates. Our commercial opportunities will be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products that are safer, more effective, have fewer side effects or are less expensive than any products that we may develop. Additionally, our commercial opportunities will be reduced or eliminated if novel upstream products or changes in treatment protocols reduce the overall incidence or prevalence of our current or future target diseases. Competition could result in reduced sales and pricing pressure on our product candidates, if approved by applicable regulatory authorities. In addition, significant delays in the development of our product candidates could allow our competitors to bring products to market before us and impair any ability to commercialize our product candidates.

There are currently no FDA- or EMA-approved products for the treatment of EBV+ PTLD. However, some marketed products and therapies are used off-label in the treatment of EBV+ PTLD, such as rituximab and combination chemotherapy regimens. In addition, a number of companies and academic institutions are developing product candidates for EBV+ PTLD and other EBV-driven diseases including: Viracta Therapeutics, Inc., which is conducting a Phase 1b/2 clinical study for nanatinostat (formerly named tractinostat, or VRx-3996) in combination with antiviral drug valganciclovir in relapsed/refractory EBV+ lymphomas; AlloVir (formerly known as ViraCyte), which has completed a Phase 2 clinical study for Viralym-M (ALVR105), an allogeneic, multi-virus T-cell product that targets six viruses in allogeneic HSCT recipients with ≥1 treatment-refractory infection, including EBV, and is planning to initiate several Phase 3 studies for CMV, AdV and Virus-Associated Hemorrhagic-Cystitis, as well as a Phase 1b/2 proof of concept trial for the prevention of BKV, CMV, AdV, EBV, HHV06 and JCV; and Tessa Therapeutics Pte Ltd., which has a Phase 2 autologous and preclinical allogeneic CD30-CAR-T product candidate being evaluated in CD30+ lymphomas.

Competition in the MS market is high with at least 20 therapies, including four generics or bioequivalents, approved in the U.S. and EU for the treatment of various forms of MS, including clinically isolated syndrome, relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), secondary progressive MS (SPMS) and primary progressive MS (PPMS). There are many competitors in the MS market, including major multi-national fully-integrated pharmaceutical companies and established biotechnology companies. Most recently, Kesimpta^® (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody), marketed by Novartis, was approved in the U.S. for the treatment of relapsing forms of MS, and a decision for its approval for treatment of the same indication in the EU is expected in the first half of 2021. Johnson & Johnson has completed Phase 3 studies of its sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1P1) modulator, ponesimod, and has sought regulatory approval also for relapsing forms of MS in the U.S. and EU.

There are numerous development candidates in Phase 3 studies for both relapsing and/or progressive forms of MS and additional novel agents could be approved in either or both indications in the future including TG Therapeutics’ anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody ublituximab, EMD Serono’s Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor, evobrutinib, Roche’s BTK inhibitor, fenebrutinib, Sanofi’s BTK inhibitor, SAR442168 and AB Science’s tyrosine kinase inhibitor, masitinib. Medicinova is planning to initiate a Phase 3 study of its PDE inhibitor, ibudilast (MN166) in non-active SPMS.

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There are currently four autologous CAR T therapies approved in the U.S. and/or EU: Novartis’ Kymriah^® (tisagenlecleucel), Gilead/Kite’s Yescarta^® (axicabtagene ciloleucel) and Tecartus^TM (brexucabtagene autoleucel) and Bristol-Myers Squibb’s Breyanzi^® (lisocabtagene maraleucel). Bristol-Myers Squibb has filed a BLA to the U.S. FDA for idecabtagene vicleucel with bluebird bio. There are many CAR-mediated cell therapies in development, and, although the majority are autologous, they include allogeneic and off-the-shelf cell therapies. There are multiple allogeneic CAR platforms being developed with differences in approaches to minimize instances of donor cells recognizing the patient’s body as foreign or rejection of the donor cells by the patient’s body. These approaches include the use of gene-editing to remove or inhibit the TCR and the use of cell types without a TCR. The majority of clinical stage allogeneic CAR programs utilize alpha beta T cells as the cell type and gene editing of the T-cell receptor and HLA as the preferred technology approach, however, other strategies are also in development. It is possible that some of these other approaches will have more favorable characteristics than the approach we utilize, which would result in them being favored by potential partners or customers over our products. Depending on the diseases that we target in the future, we may face competition from both autologous and allogeneic CAR therapies and other modalities (e.g., small molecules, antibodies) in the indication of interest.

Many of the approved or commonly used drugs and therapies for our current or future target diseases, including EBV+ PTLD and MS, are well established and are widely accepted by physicians, patients and third-party payors. Some of these drugs are branded and subject to patent protection, and other drugs and nutritional supplements are available on a generic basis. Insurers and other third-party payors may encourage the use of generic products or specific branded products. We expect that, if any of our product candidates are approved, they will be priced at a significant premium over competitive generic products. Absent differentiated and compelling clinical evidence, pricing premiums may impede the adoption of our products over currently approved or commonly used therapies, which may adversely impact our business. In addition, many companies are developing new therapeutics, and we cannot predict what the standard of care will become as our products continue in clinical development.

Many of our competitors or potential competitors have significantly greater established presence in the market, financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical studies, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we do, and as a result may have a competitive advantage over us. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, including through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies or if they are acquired by larger companies. These third parties compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific, commercial and management personnel, establishing clinical study sites and patient registration for clinical studies, as well as in acquiring technologies and technology licenses complementary to our programs or advantageous to our business.

As a result of these factors, these competitors may obtain regulatory approval of their products before we are able to obtain patent protection or other intellectual property rights, which will limit our ability to develop or commercialize our product candidates. Our competitors may also develop drugs that are safer, more effective, more widely used and cheaper than ours, and may also be more successful than us in manufacturing and marketing their products. These appreciable advantages could render our product candidates obsolete or noncompetitive before we can recover the expenses of development and commercialization.

We expect the product candidates we develop will be regulated as biological products (biologics) and therefore they may be subject to competition sooner than anticipated.

The Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009 (BPCIA) was enacted as part of the Affordable Care Act to establish an abbreviated pathway for the approval of biosimilar and interchangeable biological products. The regulatory pathway establishes legal authority for the FDA to review and approve biosimilar biologics, including the possible designation of a biosimilar as “interchangeable” based on its similarity to an approved biologic. Under the BPCIA, an application for a biosimilar product cannot be approved by the FDA until 12 years after the reference product was approved under a BLA. The law is complex and is still being interpreted and implemented by the FDA. As a result, its ultimate impact, implementation, and meaning are subject to uncertainty. While it is uncertain when processes intended to implement BPCIA may be fully adopted by the FDA, any of these processes could have a material adverse effect on the future commercial prospects for our biological products.

We believe that any of the product candidates we develop that is approved in the U.S. as a biological product under a BLA should qualify for the 12-year period of exclusivity. However, there is a risk that this exclusivity could be shortened due to congressional action or otherwise, or that the FDA will not consider the subject product candidates to be reference products for competing products, potentially creating the opportunity for generic competition sooner than anticipated. Moreover, the extent to which a biosimilar, once approved, will be substituted for any one of the reference products in a way that is similar to traditional generic substitution for non-biological products is not yet clear, and will depend on a number of marketplace and regulatory factors that are still developing.

In addition, the approval of a biologic product biosimilar to one of our products could have a material adverse impact on our business as it may be significantly less costly to bring to market and may be priced significantly lower than our products.

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If we are unable to establish sales and marketing capabilities or enter into agreements with third parties to market and sell our product candidates, we may be unable to generate any revenue from the sale of our products.

We are at an early stage of establishing an organization that will be responsible for the sale, marketing and distribution of pharmaceutical products and the cost of establishing and maintaining such an organization may exceed the cost-effectiveness of doing so. In order to market any products that may be approved by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, we must build our sales, marketing, managerial and other non-technical capabilities or make arrangements with third parties to perform these services. There are significant risks involved in building and managing a sales organization, including our ability to hire, retain and incentivize qualified individuals, generate sufficient sales leads, provide adequate training to sales and marketing personnel and effectively manage a geographically dispersed sales and marketing team. Any failure or delay in the development of our internal sales, marketing and distribution capabilities, or entering into agreements with third parties to market and sell our products, would adversely impact the commercialization of these products. We may be competing with many companies that currently have extensive and well-funded sales and marketing operations. Without a sufficiently scaled, appropriately timed and trained internal commercial organization or the support of a third party to perform sales and marketing functions, we may be unable to compete successfully against these more established companies.

We may need to grow the size of our organization, and we may experience difficulties in managing this growth.

As of December 31, 2020, we had 437 employees. We have made the decision to grow the size of our organization in order to support our continued development and potential commercialization of our product candidates. In particular, we may need to add substantial numbers of additional personnel and other resources to support our development and potential commercialization of our product candidates. As our development and commercialization plans and strategies continue to develop, or as a result of any future acquisitions, our need for additional managerial, operational, manufacturing, sales, marketing, financial and other resources will increase. Our management, personnel and systems currently in place may not be adequate to support this future growth. Future growth would impose significant added responsibilities on members of management, including:

As our operations expand, we will also need to manage additional relationships with various strategic partners, suppliers and other third parties. Our future financial performance and our ability to commercialize our product candidates and to compete effectively will depend, in part, on our ability to manage any future growth effectively. To that end, we must be able to manage our development efforts and preclinical and clinical studies effectively and hire, train and integrate additional management, research and development, manufacturing, administrative and sales and marketing personnel. Our failure to accomplish any of these tasks could prevent us from successfully growing our company.

Risks Related to Ownership of Our Common Stock

Our stock price has been and will likely continue to be volatile and may decline regardless of our operating performance.

Our stock price has fluctuated in the past and can be expected to be volatile in the future. From January 1, 2018 through December 31, 2020, the reported sale price of our common stock has fluctuated between $4.52 and $54.45 per share. The stock market in general and the market for biotechnology companies in particular have experienced extreme volatility that has often been unrelated to the operating performance of particular companies. In particular, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has further heightened the volatility of the stock market for biopharmaceutical companies. As a result of this volatility, investors may experience losses on their investment in our common stock. The market price of our common stock may be influenced by many factors, including the following:

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In addition, the stock markets in general, and the markets for biotechnology and pharmaceutical stocks in particular, have experienced significant volatility that has often been unrelated to the operating performance of particular companies, including in connection with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which has resulted in decreased stock prices for many companies. For example, negative publicity regarding drug pricing and price increases by pharmaceutical companies has negatively impacted, and may continue to negatively impact, the markets for biotechnology and pharmaceutical stocks. Likewise, as a result of significant changes in U.S. social, political, regulatory and economic conditions or in laws and policies governing foreign trade and healthcare spending and delivery, including the possible repeal and/or replacement of all or portions of the Affordable Care Act or changes in tariffs and other restrictions on free trade stemming from U.S. and foreign government policies, or for other reasons, the financial markets could experience significant volatility that could also negatively impact the markets for biotechnology and pharmaceutical stocks. These market fluctuations may adversely affect the trading price of our common stock.

In the past, class action litigation has often been instituted against companies whose securities have experienced periods of volatility in market price. Any such litigation brought against us could result in substantial costs and divert management’s attention and resources, which could result in delays of our clinical studies or commercialization efforts.

Our principal stockholders own a significant percentage of our stock and will be able to exert significant control over matters subject to stockholder approval.

Our principal stockholders own a significant portion of our outstanding common stock. These stockholders may be able to determine the outcome of all matters requiring stockholder approval. For example, these stockholders may be able to control elections of directors, amendments of our organizational documents, or approval of any merger, sale of assets, or other major corporate transaction. This may prevent or discourage unsolicited acquisition proposals or offers for our common stock. The interests of our significant stockholders may not always coincide with the interests of other stockholders and they may act in a manner that advances their best interests and not necessarily those of other stockholders, including seeking a premium value for their common stock, and might affect the market price for our common stock.

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Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could cause our stock price to fall.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could occur at any time. These sales, or the perception in the market that the holders of a large number of shares intend to sell shares, could reduce the market price of our common stock. Moreover, certain holders of shares of our common stock will have rights, subject to certain conditions, to require us to file registration statements covering their shares or to include their shares in registration statements that we may file for ourselves or other stockholders. We have registered and intend to continue to register all shares of common stock that we may issue under our equity compensation plans. Once we register these shares, they can be freely sold in the public market upon issuance, subject to volume limitations applicable to affiliates.

We have incurred and will continue to incur increased costs as a result of being a public company and our management expects to devote substantial time to public company compliance programs.

As a public company, we have incurred and will continue to incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses. We are subject to the reporting requirements of the Exchange Act, which require, among other things, that we file with the SEC annual, quarterly and current reports with respect to our business and financial condition. In addition, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, as well as rules subsequently adopted by the SEC and The Nasdaq Stock Market to implement provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, impose significant requirements on public companies, including requiring establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and changes in corporate governance practices. Further, pursuant to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010, the SEC has adopted and will adopt additional rules and regulations, such as mandatory “say on pay” voting requirements, that now apply to us. Stockholder activism, the current political environment and the potential for future regulatory reform may lead to substantial new regulations and disclosure obligations, which may lead to additional compliance costs and impact the manner in which we operate our business in ways we cannot currently anticipate.

The rules and regulations applicable to public companies have substantially increased our legal and financial compliance costs and make some activities more time-consuming and costly. To the extent these requirements divert the attention of our management and personnel from other business concerns, they could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. The increased costs will decrease our net income or increase our net loss and may require us to reduce costs in other areas of our business or increase the prices of our products or services.

Because we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our capital stock in the foreseeable future, capital appreciation, if any, will be the sole source of potential gain for our stockholders.

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We currently intend to retain all of our future earnings, if any, to finance the growth and development of our business. In addition, the terms of any future debt agreements may preclude us from paying dividends. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock will be the sole source of gain for our stockholders for the foreseeable future.

Future sales and issuances of our common stock or rights to purchase common stock, including pursuant to our equity incentive plans, could result in additional dilution of the percentage ownership of our stockholders and could cause our stock price to fall.

We expect that significant additional capital will be needed in the future to continue our planned operations. To raise capital, we may sell substantial amounts of common stock or securities convertible into or exchangeable for common stock in one or more transactions at prices and in a manner we determine from time to time. These future issuances of common stock or common stock-related securities, together with the exercise of outstanding options or warrants, and any additional shares issued in connection with acquisitions or in-licenses, if any, may result in material dilution to our investors. Such sales may also result in material dilution to our existing stockholders, and new investors could gain rights, preferences and privileges senior to those of holders of our common stock. To the extent equity valuations, including the trading price of our common stock, are depressed as a result of economic disruptions and uncertainty concerning the COVID-19 pandemic or other factors, the potential magnitude of this dilution will increase. Pursuant to our equity incentive plans, our compensation committee is authorized to grant equity-based incentive awards to our employees, non-employee directors and consultants. Future grants of RSUs, options and other equity awards and issuances of common stock under our equity incentive plans will result in dilution and may have an adverse effect on the market price of our common stock.

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Some terms of our charter documents and Delaware law may have anti-takeover effects that could discourage an acquisition of us by others, even if an acquisition would be beneficial to our stockholders and may prevent attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation (Certificate of Incorporation) and amended and restated bylaws (Bylaws), as well as Delaware law, could make it more difficult for a third party to acquire us or increase the cost of acquiring us, even if doing so would benefit our stockholders, or remove our current management. These include terms that:

Any of the factors listed above may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors, who are responsible for appointing the members of our management.

In addition, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which may discourage, delay or prevent someone from acquiring us or merging with us whether or not it is desired by or beneficial to our stockholders. Under Delaware law, a corporation may not, in general, engage in a business combination with any holder of 15% or more of its capital stock unless the holder has held the stock for three years or, among other things, the board of directors has approved the transaction. Any term of our Certificate of Incorporation or Bylaws or Delaware law that has the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control could limit the opportunity for our stockholders to receive a premium for their shares of our common stock and could also affect the price that some investors are willing to pay for our common stock.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our stock price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock will depend in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us and our business. In the event securities or industry analysts who cover us downgrade our stock or publish unfavorable research about us or our business, our stock price would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to publish reports on us regularly, demand for our stock could decrease, which might cause our stock price and trading volume to decline.

General Risk Factors

Our future success depends on our ability to retain our executive officers and to attract, retain and motivate qualified personnel.

We are highly dependent upon our executive officers and other key employees and the loss of the services of any of our executive officers or other key employees, including scientific, technical or management personnel, could impede the achievement of our corporate objectives.

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Our success depends on our ability to recruit, retain, manage and motivate our employees. Although we enter into employment agreements or offer letters with our employees, these documents provide for “at-will” employment, which means that any of our employees could leave our employment at any time, with or without notice. Competition for skilled personnel in our industry and geographic regions is intense and may limit our ability to hire and retain qualified personnel on acceptable terms or at all. To induce valuable employees to remain at our company, in addition to salary and cash incentives, we have provided equity awards that vest over time. The value to employees of equity awards may be significantly affected by movements in our stock price that are beyond our control and may at any time be insufficient to counteract more lucrative offers from other companies.

Our relationships with customers and third-party payors will be subject to applicable anti-kickback, fraud and abuse, privacy and other laws and regulations, which could expose us to criminal sanctions, civil penalties, contractual damages, reputational harm and diminished profits and future earnings.

Healthcare providers, including physicians, and third-party payors will play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of any product candidates for which we obtain regulatory approval. Our current and future arrangements with third-party payors and customers may expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we conduct research and would market, sell and distribute our products. As a biopharmaceutical company, even though we do not and will not control referrals of healthcare services or bill directly to Medicare, Medicaid or other third-party payors, federal and state healthcare laws and regulations pertaining to fraud and abuse and patients’ rights are and will be applicable to our business. If we obtain FDA approval of any of our product candidates and begin commercializing those products in the United States, our potential exposure under such laws will increase significantly, and our costs associated with compliance with such laws are also likely to increase. These laws may impact, among other things, our current activities with principal investigators and research patients, as well as proposed and future sales, marketing and education programs. In addition, the approval and commercialization of any of our product candidates outside the United States will also likely subject us to foreign equivalents of the healthcare laws mentioned here, among other foreign laws. Restrictions under applicable federal and state healthcare laws and regulations that may affect our ability to operate include, but are not limited to, the following:

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Additionally, we may be subject to state and foreign equivalents of each of the healthcare laws described above, among others, some of which may be broader in scope. Efforts to ensure that our business arrangements with third parties comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will involve substantial costs. It is possible that governmental authorities will conclude that our business practices do not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law involving applicable healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other governmental regulations, we may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, imprisonment, exclusion from government-funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, disgorgement, additional reporting requirements or oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. If any physicians or other healthcare providers or entities with whom we expect to do business are found to not be in compliance with applicable laws, they may be subject to significant criminal, civil or administrative sanctions, including exclusions from government-funded healthcare programs.

Our employees may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements, which could cause significant liability for us and harm our reputation.

We are exposed to the risk of employee fraud or other misconduct, including intentional failures to comply with FDA regulations or similar regulations of comparable foreign regulatory authorities, provide accurate information to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, comply with manufacturing standards we have established, comply with federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations and similar laws and regulations established and enforced by comparable foreign regulatory authorities, report financial information or data accurately or disclose unauthorized activities to us. Employee misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical studies, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. It is not always possible to identify and deter employee misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business and results of operations, including the imposition of significant fines or other sanctions.

Product liability lawsuits against us could cause us to incur substantial liabilities and to limit commercialization of any products that we may develop.

We face an inherent risk of product liability exposure related to the testing of our product candidates in human clinical studies and will face an even greater risk if we commercially sell any products that we may develop. Product liability claims may be brought against us by subjects enrolled in our clinical studies, patients, healthcare providers or others using, administering or selling our products. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against claims that our product candidates or products caused injuries, we could incur substantial liabilities. Regardless of merit or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

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We currently hold product liability insurance coverage at a level that we believe is customary for similarly situated companies and adequate to provide us with insurance coverage for foreseeable risks, but which may not be adequate to cover all liabilities that we may incur. We may not be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in an amount adequate to satisfy any liability that may arise. We intend to expand our insurance coverage for products to include the sale of commercial products if we obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates in development, but we may be unable to obtain commercially reasonable product liability insurance for any products that receive regulatory approval. Large judgments have been awarded in class action lawsuits based on drugs that had unanticipated side effects. A successful product liability claim or series of claims brought against us, particularly if judgments exceed our insurance coverage, could decrease our cash and adversely affect our business.

If we and our third-party manufacturers fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could have a material adverse effect on the success of our business.

We and our third-party manufacturers are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. Our operations involve the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials. Our operations also produce hazardous waste products. We generally contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and wastes. We cannot eliminate the risk of contamination or injury from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from our or our third-party manufacturers’ use of hazardous materials, we could be held liable for any resulting damages, and any liability could exceed our resources. We also could incur significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties.

Although we maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials with a policy limit that we believe is customary for similarly situated companies and adequate to provide us with insurance coverage for foreseeable risks, this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. We do not maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us in connection with our storage or disposal of biological or hazardous materials.

In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. These current or future laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

The actual or perceived failure by us, our customers, or vendors to comply with increasingly stringent laws, regulations and contractual obligations relating to privacy, data protection, and data security could harm our reputation, and subject us to significant fines and liability.

We are or may become subject to numerous domestic and foreign laws and regulations regarding privacy, data protection, and data security, the scope of which is changing, subject to differing applications and interpretations and may be inconsistent among countries, or conflict with other rules. We are also subject to the terms of our contractual obligations to customers and third parties related to privacy, data protection, and data security.  The actual or perceived failure by us, our customers, our vendors, or other relevant third parties to address or comply with these laws, regulations, and obligations could increase our compliance and operational costs, expose us to regulatory scrutiny, actions, fines and penalties, cause regulators to reject, limit or disrupt our clinical trial activities, result in reputational harm, lead to a loss of customers, reduce the use of our products, result in litigation and liability, and otherwise cause a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

For example, the EU adopted GDPR, which imposes onerous and comprehensive privacy, data protection, and data security obligations onto data controllers and processors, including, as applicable, contractual privacy, data protection, and data security commitments, expanded disclosures to data subjects about how their personal information is used, honoring individuals’ data protection rights, limitations on retention of personal information, additional requirements pertaining to sensitive information (such as health data) and pseudonymized (i.e., key-coded) data, data breach notification requirements, higher standards for obtaining consent from data subjects, changes to informed consent practices, and more detailed notices for clinical trial subjects and investigators. Penalties for non-compliance with the GDPR can be significant and include fines in the amount of the greater of €20 million or four percent of global turnover and restrictions or prohibitions on data processing, which could impair our ability to do business in the EU, reduce demand for our services and adversely impact our business and results of operations. The GDPR also provides that EU member states may introduce further laws and regulations limiting the processing of genetic, biometric, or health data, which could limit our ability to collect, use and share European data, cause our compliance costs to increase, require us to change our practices, adversely impact our business, and harm our financial condition. Assisting our customers, partners, and vendors in complying with the GDPR, or complying with the GDPR ourselves, may cause us to incur substantial operational costs or require us to change our business practices.  

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European privacy, data protection, and data security laws, including the GDPR, generally restrict the transfer of personal information from the EEA to the United States and most other countries unless the parties to the transfer have implemented specific safeguards to protect the transferred personal information. Data protection laws in the U.K. and Switzerland impose similar restrictions. There is uncertainty on how to implement such safeguards and how to conduct such transfers in compliance with the GDPR, and certain safeguards may not be available or applicable with respect to some or all of the personal information processing activities necessary to research, develop and market our products and services. One of the primary safeguards allowing U.S. companies to import personal information from Europe has been certification to the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield and Swiss-U.S. Privacy Shield frameworks.  However, the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield framework was invalidated in July 2020 in a decision by the Court of Justice of the European Union and the Swiss-U.S. Privacy Shield Framework was declared as inadequate by the Swiss Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner. The decision by the Court of Justice and the announcement by the Swiss Commissioner both raised questions about whether one of the primary alternatives to the Privacy Shield frameworks, the European Commission’s Standard Contractual Clauses, can lawfully be used for personal information transfers from Europe to the United States or most other countries. Authorities in the U.K. may similarly invalidate use of the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield and raise questions on the viability of the Standard Contractual Clauses. In November 2020, EU regulators proposed a new set of Standard Contractual Clauses, which impose additional obligations and requirements with respect to the transfer of EU personal data to other jurisdictions, which may increase the legal risks and liabilities under the GDPR and local EU laws associated with cross-border data transfers, and result in material increased compliance and operational costs. If we are unable to implement a valid solution for personal information transfers to the United States and other countries, we will face increased exposure to regulatory actions, substantial fines, and injunctions against processing or transferring personal information from Europe, and we may be required to increase our data processing capabilities in Europe at significant expense. Inability to import personal information from Europe to the United States or other countries may decrease demand for our products and services as our customers that are subject to the GDPR may seek alternatives that do not involve personal information transfers out of Europe. At present, there are few, if any, viable alternatives to the Privacy Shield and the Standard Contractual Clauses.

In addition, it is unclear whether the transfer of personal information from the EU to the U.K. will continue to remain lawful under the GDPR in light of Brexit. Pursuant to a post-Brexit trade deal between the U.K. and the EU, transfers of personal information from the EEA to the U.K. are not considered restricted transfers under the GDPR for a period of up to six months from January 1, 2021. However, unless the EU Commission makes an adequacy finding with respect to the U.K. before the end of that period, the U.K. will be considered a “third country” under the GDPR and transfers of European personal information to the U.K. will require an adequacy mechanism to render such transfers lawful under the GDPR. Additionally, although U.K. privacy, data protection and data security law is designed to be consistent with the GDPR, uncertainty remains regarding how data transfers to and from the U.K. will be regulated notwithstanding Brexit.

Other countries outside of Europe have enacted or are considering enacting similar cross-border data transfer restrictions and laws requiring local data residency, which could increase the cost and complexity of delivering our services and operating our business. For example, Brazil recently enacted the General Data Protection Law (Lei Geral de Proteção de Dados Pessoais or LGPD) (Law No. 13,709/2018), which broadly regulates the processing of personal information and imposes compliance obligations and penalties comparable to those of the GDPR.

Regulation of privacy, data protection and data security has also become more stringent in the United States. For example, the CCPA, which took effect on January 1, 2020, gives California residents expanded rights to access and delete their personal information, opt out of certain personal information sharing, and receive detailed information about how their personal information is used. The CCPA provides for civil penalties for violations, as well as a private right of action for data breaches that is expected to increase data breach litigation. The CCPA may increase our compliance costs and potential liability. Some observers have noted that the CCPA could mark the beginning of a trend toward more stringent state privacy, data protection and data security legislation in the U.S., which could increase our potential liability and adversely affect our business. The CCPA will be expanded substantially on January 1, 2023, when the CPRA becomes fully operative. The CPRA will, among other things, give California residents the ability to limit use of certain sensitive personal information, further restrict the use of cross-contextual advertising, establish restrictions on the retention of personal information, expand the types of data breaches subject to the CCPA’s private right of action, provide for increased penalties for CPRA violations concerning California residents under the age of 16, and establish a new California Privacy Protection Agency to implement and enforce the new law.  

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Compliance with U.S. and foreign privacy, data protection, and data security laws and regulations could cause us to incur substantial costs or require us to change our business practices and compliance procedures in a manner adverse to our business. Moreover, complying with these various laws could require us to take on more onerous obligations in our contracts, restrict our ability to collect, use and disclose data, or in some cases, impact our ability to operate in certain jurisdictions. Failure to comply with U.S. and foreign privacy, data protection, and data security laws and regulations could result in government enforcement actions (which could include civil or criminal penalties), private litigation and/or adverse publicity and could negatively affect our operating results and business. Claims that we have violated individuals’ privacy rights, failed to comply with privacy, data protection, and data security laws, or breached our contractual obligations, even if we are not found liable, could be expensive and time consuming to defend, could result in adverse publicity and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

If our security measures are compromised, or our information technology systems or those of our vendors, and other relevant third parties fail or suffer security breaches, loss or leakage of data, and other disruptions, this could result in a material disruption of our services, compromise sensitive information related to our business, harm our reputation, trigger our breach notification obligations, prevent us from accessing critical information, and expose us to liability or other adverse effects to our business.

In the ordinary course of our business, we may collect, process, and store proprietary, confidential, and sensitive information, including personal information (including health information), intellectual property, trade secrets, and proprietary business information owned or controlled by ourselves or other parties. It is critical that we do so in a secure manner to maintain the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of such information. We face several risks relative to protecting this critical information, including loss of access risk, inappropriate use or disclosure, inappropriate modification, and the risk of our being unable to adequately monitor, audit and modify our controls over our critical information. This risk extends to the third-party service providers who handle elements of our operations.

We, our partners, our CROs, our CMOs, and other business vendors on which we rely depend on information technology and telecommunication systems for significant elements of our operations, including, for example, systems handling human resources, financial reporting and controls, regulatory compliance and other infrastructure operations. Notwithstanding the implementation of security measures, given the size and complexity of our information technology systems and those of our third-party vendors and other contractors and consultants, and the increasing amounts of proprietary, confidential and sensitive information that they maintain, such information technology systems are potentially vulnerable to breakdown, service interruptions, system malfunction, natural disasters, terrorism, war and telecommunication and electrical failures, as well as security breaches from inadvertent or intentional actions by our personnel, third-party vendors, contractors, consultants, business partners, and/or other third parties, or from cyber-attacks by malicious third parties (including the deployment of harmful malware, ransomware, denial-of-service attacks, social engineering, and other means to affect service reliability and threaten the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information), which may compromise our system infrastructure, or that of our third-party vendors and other contractors and consultants, or lead to data leakage. The risk of a security breach or disruption, particularly through accidental actions or omissions by trusted insiders, cyber-attacks or cyber intrusions, including by computer hackers, viruses, foreign governments, and cyber terrorists, has generally increased as the number, intensity, and sophistication of attempted attacks and intrusions from around the world have increased. Additionally, the increased usage of computers operated on home networks due to the shelter-in-place or similar restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic may make our systems more susceptible to security breaches. Although we take measures to protect sensitive data from unauthorized access, use or disclosure, our information technology and infrastructure may be vulnerable to attacks by hackers or viruses or breached due to personnel error, malfeasance, or other malicious or inadvertent disruptions. Any such breach or interruption could compromise our networks and the information stored there could be accessed by unauthorized parties, manipulated, publicly disclosed, lost, or stolen.

Failures or significant downtime of our information technology or telecommunication systems or those used by our third-party service providers could cause significant interruptions to our operations, including preventing us from conducting tests or research and development activities and preventing us from managing the administrative aspects of our business. For example, the loss of clinical study data from completed, ongoing or planned clinical studies could result in delays in our regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. To the extent that any disruption or security breach results in a loss of or damage to our data or applications, or inappropriate disclosure of confidential or proprietary information, we could incur liability, the further development of our product candidates could be delayed and our business could be otherwise adversely affected.

We may not be able to anticipate all types of security threats, and we may not be able to implement preventative measures effective against all such security threats. The techniques used by cyber criminals change frequently, may not be recognized until launched, and can originate from a wide variety of sources, including outside groups such as external service providers, organized crime affiliates, terrorist organizations, hostile foreign governments or agencies, or cybersecurity researchers. To the extent that any disruption or security breach were to result in a loss of, or damage to, our data or applications, or those of our third-party vendors and other contractors and consultants, or inappropriate disclosure of confidential or proprietary information, we could incur liability and reputational damage and the further development and commercialization of our products and services could be delayed.

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The costs related to significant security breaches or disruptions could be material and could exceed the limits of the cybersecurity insurance we maintain, if any, against such risks. If the information technology systems of our third-party vendors and other contractors and consultants become subject to disruptions or security breaches, we may have insufficient recourse against such third parties and may have to expend significant resources to mitigate the impact of such an event, and to develop and implement protections to prevent future events of this nature from occurring.

We cannot assure you that our data protection efforts and our investment in information technology will prevent significant breakdowns, data leakages, breaches in our systems, or those of our third-party vendors and other contractors and consultants, or other cyber incidents that could have a material adverse effect upon our reputation, business, operations, or financial condition. For example, if such an event were to occur and cause interruptions in our operations, or those of our third-party vendors and other contractors and consultants, it could result in a material disruption of our programs and the development of our services and technologies could be delayed. Furthermore, significant disruptions of our internal information technology systems or those of our third-party vendors and other contractors and consultants, or security breaches could result in the loss, misappropriation, and/or unauthorized access, use, or disclosure of, or the prevention of access to, confidential information (including trade secrets or other intellectual property, proprietary business information, and personal information), which could result in financial, legal, business, and reputational harm to us. For example, any such event that leads to unauthorized access, use, or disclosure of personal information, including personal information regarding our customers or employees, could harm our reputation directly, compel us to comply with federal and/or state breach notification laws and foreign law equivalents, subject us to mandatory corrective action, and otherwise subject us to liability under laws and regulations that protect the privacy and security of personal information, which could result in significant legal and financial exposure and reputational damages that could potentially have an adverse effect on our business.

Although we take measures to protect sensitive data from unauthorized access, use or disclosure, our information technology and infrastructure may be vulnerable to attacks by hackers or viruses or breached due to personnel error, malfeasance, or other malicious or inadvertent disruptions. Any such breach or interruption could compromise our networks and the information stored there could be accessed by unauthorized parties, manipulated, publicly disclosed, lost, or stolen.

Any such access, breach, or other loss of information could result in legal claims or proceedings, liability under domestic or foreign privacy, data protection and data security laws such as HIPAA and HITECH, and penalties. Notice of certain security breaches must be made to affected individuals, the Secretary of HHS, and for extensive breaches, notice may need to be made to the media or state attorneys general. Such notice could harm our reputation and our ability to compete. Although we have implemented security measures, such data is currently accessible through multiple channels, and there is no guarantee we can protect our data from breach. Unauthorized access, loss or dissemination could also damage our reputation or disrupt our operations, including our ability to conduct our analyses, conduct research and development activities, collect, process and prepare company financial information, and manage the administrative aspects of our business.

Penalties for violations of these laws vary. For instance, penalties for failure to comply with a requirement of HIPAA and HITECH vary significantly, and include significant civil monetary penalties and, in certain circumstances, criminal penalties with fines up to $250,000 per violation and/or imprisonment. A person who knowingly obtains or discloses individually identifiable health information in violation of HIPAA may face a criminal penalty of up to $50,000 and up to one-year imprisonment. The criminal penalties increase if the wrongful conduct involves false pretenses or the intent to sell, transfer or use identifiable health information for commercial advantage, personal gain or malicious harm.

Further, various states, such as California and Massachusetts, have implemented similar privacy laws and regulations, such as the California Confidentiality of Medical Information Act, that impose restrictive requirements regulating the use and disclosure of health information and other personally identifiable information. These laws and regulations are not necessarily preempted by HIPAA, particularly if a state afford greater protection to individuals than HIPAA. Where state laws are more protective, we have to comply with the stricter provisions. In addition to fines and penalties imposed upon violators, some of these state laws also afford private rights of action to individuals who believe their personal information has been misused. California’s patient privacy laws, for example, provide for penalties of up to $250,000 and permit injured parties to sue for damages. Similarly, the CCPA allows consumers a private right of action when certain personal information is subject to unauthorized access and exfiltration, theft or disclosure due to a business’ failure to implement and maintain reasonable security procedures. The interplay of federal and state laws may be subject to varying interpretations by courts and government agencies, creating complex compliance issues for us and data we receive, use and share, potentially exposing us to additional expense, adverse publicity and liability. Further, as regulatory focus on privacy issues continues to increase and laws and regulations concerning the protection of personal information expand and become more complex, these potential risks to our business could intensify. Changes in laws or regulations associated with the enhanced protection of certain types of sensitive data, for the treatment of genetic data, along with increased customer demands for enhanced data security infrastructure, could greatly increase our cost of providing our products, decrease demand for our products, reduce our revenues and/or subject us to additional liabilities.

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Changes in tax laws or regulations that are applied adversely to us or our customers may have an adverse effect on our business, cash flows, financial condition or results of operations.

New income, sales, use or other tax laws, statutes, rules, regulations or ordinances could be enacted at any time, which could adversely affect our business and financial condition. Further, existing tax laws, statutes, rules, regulations or ordinances could be interpreted, changed, modified or applied adversely to us. For example, the Tax Act enacted many significant changes to the U.S. tax laws. Future guidance from the Internal Revenue Service and other tax authorities with respect to the Tax Act may affect us, and certain aspects of the Tax Act repealed or modified in future legislation. For example, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief and Economic Security Act (CARES Act) modified certain provisions of the Tax Act. In addition, it is uncertain if and to what extent various states will conform to the Tax Act, the CARES Act or any other newly enacted federal tax legislation. Changes in corporate tax rates, the realization of net deferred tax assets relating to our operations, the taxation of foreign earnings, and the deductibility of expenses under the Tax Act or future reform legislation could have a material impact on the value of our deferred tax assets, could result in significant one-time charges, and could increase our future U.S. tax expense. However, given our valuation allowance position, the Tax Act is not expected to have a significant impact on our effective tax rate, cash tax expenses or net deferred tax assets.

Our ability to use net operating loss carryforwards and certain tax assets to offset future taxable income or taxes may be subject to certain limitations.

Our ability to use our federal and state net operating losses (NOLs), to offset potential future taxable income and related income taxes that would otherwise be due is dependent upon our generation of future taxable income, and we cannot predict with certainty when, or whether, we will generate sufficient taxable income to use all of our NOLs.

As of December 31, 2020, we reported U.S. federal and state NOLs of approximately $811.7 million and $988.1 million, respectively. Our federal NOLs generated in tax years beginning prior to January 1, 2018 aggregating to $65.3 million will continue to be governed by the NOL tax rules as they existed prior to the adoption of the Tax Act, which means that generally they will expire 20 years after they were generated if not used prior thereto. Many states have similar laws, and our state NOLs will begin to expire in 2030. Accordingly, these federal and state NOLs could expire unused and be unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities. Under the Tax Act, as modified by the CARES Act, federal NOLs incurred in tax years beginning after December 31, 2017 may be carried forward indefinitely, but the utilization of such federal NOLs arising in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2020 is limited to 80% of current year taxable income. The CARES Act temporarily suspends this 80% taxable income limitation, allowing an NOL carryforward to fully offset taxable income in tax years beginning before 2021. Not all states conform to the Tax Act or CARES Act and other states have varying conformity to the Tax Act or CARES Act.

In addition, under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the Code), our ability to utilize these NOLs and other tax attributes, such as federal tax credits, in any taxable year may be limited if we have experienced an “ownership change”. Generally, a Section 382 ownership change occurs if one or more stockholders or groups of stockholders who owns at least 5% of a corporation’s stock increases its ownership by more than 50 percentage points over its lowest ownership percentage within a three-year testing period. Similar rules may apply under state tax laws. We completed a Section 382 study of transactions in our stock through December 31, 2020 and concluded that we have experienced ownership changes since inception that we believe under Section 382 of the Code will result in limitations on our ability to use certain pre-change NOLs and credits. In addition, we may experience subsequent ownership changes as a result of future equity offerings or other changes in the ownership of our stock, some of which are beyond our control. As a result, the amount of the NOLs and tax credit carryforwards presented in our financial statements could be limited and, in the case of NOLs generated in tax years beginning on or before December 31, 2017, may expire unused. Any such material limitation or expiration of our NOLs may harm our future operating results by effectively increasing our future tax obligations. Similar provisions of state tax law may also apply to limit the use of accumulated state tax attributes. In addition, at the state level, there may be periods during which the use of NOLs or other tax attributes is suspended or otherwise limited, which could accelerate or permanently increase state taxes owed. For example, California imposed limits on the usability of California state NOLs and certain tax attributes in tax years beginning after 2019 and before 2023.

Business disruptions could seriously harm our future revenues and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses.

Our operations could be subject to earthquakes, power shortages, telecommunications failures, water shortages, floods, hurricanes, typhoons, fires, extreme weather conditions, medical epidemics and other natural or man-made disasters or business interruptions, for which we are predominantly self-insured. Two of our corporate locations are located in California, an area prone to earthquakes and fires. The occurrence of any of these business disruptions could seriously harm our operations and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses. We rely on third-party manufacturers to produce our product candidates. Our ability to obtain clinical supplies of product candidates could be disrupted, if the operations of these suppliers are affected by a man-made or natural disaster or other business interruption, including, for example, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

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Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments

None.

Item 2. Properties

Our corporate headquarters are located in South San Francisco, California and consists of approximately 13,670 square feet of office space under a lease agreement that expires in May 2022. We also lease approximately 90,580 square feet of office, lab and cellular therapy manufacturing space in Thousand Oaks, California under a lease for which the initial 15-year term commenced in February 2018. Additionally, in November 2018, we entered into a lease agreement for approximately 51,160 square feet of office space in Thousand Oaks, California that expires in February 2026.

Item 3. Legal Proceedings

None.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures

Not applicable.

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PART II

Item 5. Market for Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

Market Information

Our common stock has been listed on The Nasdaq Global Select Market under the symbol “ATRA” since October 16, 2014. Prior to that time, there was no public market for our common stock.

On February 18, 2021, there were 6 stockholders of record of our common stock. We are unable to estimate the total number of stockholders represented by these record holders, as many of our shares are held by brokers and other institutions on behalf of our stockholders.

Dividend Policy

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We currently intend to retain any future earnings for use in the operation of our business and do not intend to declare or pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Any further determination to pay dividends on our capital stock will be at the discretion of our board of directors, subject to applicable laws, and will depend on our financial condition, results of operations, capital requirements, general business conditions and other factors that our board of directors considers relevant.

Securities Authorized for Issuance under Equity Compensation Plans

Information about our equity compensation plans is incorporated herein by reference to Item 12 of Part III of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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Stock Performance Graph

The following graph compares the cumulative total return on an indexed basis of a $100 investment, made at the beginning of the five-year period ended December 31, 2020, in the Company’s common stock, the Nasdaq Composite Index and the Nasdaq Biotechnology Index.

This performance graph shall not be deemed “soliciting material” or to be “filed” with the SEC for purposes of Section 18 of the Exchange Act or incorporated by reference into any filing of Atara Biotherapeutics, Inc. under the Securities Act or the Exchange Act, except to the extent we specifically incorporate it by reference into such filing. The past performance of our common stock is not an indication of future performance.

COMPARISON OF FIVE-YEAR CUMULATIVE TOTAL RETURN

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Item 6. Selected Financial Data

The following selected consolidated financial data of the Company for each of the periods indicated are derived from the Company’s audited consolidated financial statements. The consolidated financial statements of the Company as of December 31, 2020 and 2019 and for the years ended December 31, 2020, 2019 and 2018, and the related reports of the independent registered public accounting firm are included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. The data presented below should be read in conjunction with the Company’s financial statements, the notes thereto, and "Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" included elsewhere in this report.

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with our audited consolidated financial statements and related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. This discussion and other parts of this Annual Report contain forward-looking statements that involve risk and uncertainties, such as statements of our plans, objectives, expectations and intentions. As a result of many factors, including those factors set forth in the “Risk Factors” section of this Annual Report, our actual results could differ materially from the results described in or implied by the forward-looking statements contained in the following discussion and analysis.

Overview

Atara Biotherapeutics is a pioneer in T-cell immunotherapy, leveraging its novel allogeneic EBV T-cell platform to develop transformative therapies for patients with serious diseases, including solid tumors, hematologic cancers and autoimmune disease. With our lead program in Phase 3 clinical development, we are the most advanced allogeneic T-cell immunotherapy company and intend to rapidly deliver off-the-shelf treatments to patients with high unmet medical need. Our platform leverages the unique biology of EBV T cells and has the capability to treat a wide range of EBV-driven diseases or other serious diseases through incorporation of engineered CARs or TCRs. Atara is applying this one platform to create a robust pipeline. Our strategic priorities are:

Our T-cell immunotherapy platform includes the capability to progress both allogeneic and autologous programs and is potentially applicable to a broad array of targets and diseases. Our off-the-shelf, allogeneic T-cell platform allows for rapid delivery of a T-cell immunotherapy product manufactured in advance of patient need and stored in inventory, with each manufactured lot of cells providing therapy for numerous potential patients. This differs from autologous treatments, in which each patient’s own cells must be extracted, genetically modified outside the body and then delivered back to the patient, requiring a complex logistics network. For our allogeneic programs, we select the appropriate set of cells for use based on a patient’s unique immune profile.

In December 2020, we entered into the Bayer License Agreement, pursuant to which we granted to Bayer an exclusive, field-limited license under the applicable patents and know-how owned or controlled by us and our affiliates covering or related to ATA2271 and ATA3271. Under the terms of the Bayer License Agreement, we will be responsible at our cost for all mutually agreed preclinical and clinical activities for ATA2271 through the first in human Phase 1 clinical study in collaboration with MSK, following which Bayer will be responsible for the further development of ATA2271 at its cost. Bayer will be responsible for the development of ATA3271, except for certain mutually agreed preclinical, translational, manufacturing and supply chain activities to be performed by us relating to ATA3271, in each case at Bayer’s cost. Bayer will also be solely responsible for commercializing the Licensed Products at its cost.

We have also entered into research collaborations with leading academic institutions such as MSK, QIMR Berghofer and Moffitt pursuant to which we acquired rights to novel and proprietary technologies and programs.

Our manufacturing facility in Thousand Oaks, California has the flexibility to manufacture multiple T-cell and CAR T immunotherapies while integrating research and process science functions to enable increased collaboration for rapid product development. We are currently in the process of completing our facility’s commercial production qualification activities for tab-cel^® while building inventory according to our commercial product supply strategy.

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In addition to our manufacturing facility, we also work with Cognate pursuant to the Manufacturing Agreement that we entered into in December 2019. Pursuant to the Manufacturing Agreement, Cognate provides manufacturing services for certain of our product candidates. The initial term of the Manufacturing Agreement runs until December 31, 2021 and is renewable with Cognate’s approval for an additional one-year period.

We have a limited operating history. Since our inception in 2012, we have devoted substantially all of our resources to identify, acquire and develop our product candidates, including conducting preclinical and clinical studies, acquiring or manufacturing materials for clinical studies, constructing our manufacturing facility and providing general and administrative support for these operations.

Our net losses were $306.6 million, $291.0 million and $230.7 million for the years ended December 31, 2020, 2019 and 2018, respectively. As of December 31, 2020, we had an accumulated deficit of $1.1 billion. Substantially all of our net losses have resulted from costs incurred in connection with our research and development programs and from general and administrative expenses associated with our operations. As of December 31, 2020, our cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments totaled $500.7 million, which we intend to use to fund our operations.

Financial Overview

Revenues

We have never generated revenues from the sale of products and have incurred losses since inception. We do not expect to receive any revenue from product sales unless and until we obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize one of our current or future product candidates. Further, we have not generated any revenue to date from the Bayer License Agreement.

We expect that any revenue we generate from our Bayer License Agreement and any future collaboration and research and license partners will fluctuate from year to year as a result of the timing and number of milestones and other payments.

Research and Development Expenses

The largest component of our total operating expenses since inception has been our investment in research and development activities, including the preclinical and clinical development of our product candidates. Research and development expenses consist primarily of compensation and benefits for research and development employees, including stock-based compensation; expenses incurred under agreements with contract research organizations and investigative sites that conduct preclinical and clinical studies; the costs of acquiring and manufacturing clinical study materials and other supplies; payments under licensing and research and development agreements; other outside services and consulting costs; and facilities, information technology and overhead expenses. Research and development costs are expensed as incurred.

We plan to continue investment in the development of our product candidates. Our current planned research and development activities include the following:

In addition, we believe it is important to invest in the development of new product candidates to continue to build the value of our product candidate pipeline and our business. We plan to continue to advance our most promising early product candidates into preclinical development with the objective to advance these early-stage programs to human clinical studies over the next several years.

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Our expenditures on current and future preclinical and clinical development programs are subject to numerous uncertainties in timing and cost to completion. The duration, costs, and timing of clinical studies and development of our product candidates will depend on a variety of factors, including:

The process of conducting the necessary clinical research to obtain approval from the FDA and other regulators is costly and time consuming and the successful development of our product candidates is highly uncertain. The risks and uncertainties associated with our research and development projects are discussed more fully in the section of this report titled “1A. Risk Factors.” As a result of these risks and uncertainties, we are unable to determine with any degree of certainty the duration and completion costs of our research and development projects, or if, when, or to what extent we will generate revenues from the commercialization and sale of any of our product candidates that obtain regulatory approval. We may never succeed in achieving regulatory approval for any of our product candidates.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of compensation and benefits for legal, human resources, finance, commercial and other general and administrative employees, including stock-based compensation; professional services costs, including legal, patent, human resources, audit and accounting services; other outside services and consulting costs, including those related to pre-commercial activities; and information technology and facilities costs.

Interest and Other Income, net

Interest and other income, net consists primarily of interest earned on our cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments.

Income Taxes

Our provision for (benefit from) income taxes consists primarily of income taxes in U.S. state and foreign jurisdictions. Our effective tax rate was 0% for the years ended December 31, 2020, 2019, and 2018.

Critical Accounting Policies and Significant Judgments and Estimates

Our management’s discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based on our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. The preparation of these financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities and expenses. On an on-going basis, we evaluate our critical accounting policies and estimates. We base our estimates on historical experience and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable in the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions and conditions. Our significant judgments and estimates are detailed below, and our significant accounting policies are more fully described in Note 2 of the accompanying consolidated financial statements.

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Revenue Recognition

Revenue from research activities under our research, development, and license agreements is recognized when our customer obtains control of the promised goods or services, in an amount that reflects the consideration which we expect to receive in exchange for those goods or services. Revenue generated from our research, development, and license agreements is not subject to repayment and typically includes upfront fees, development, regulatory and commercial milestone payments and royalties on the licensee’s future product sales.

Our research, development, and license agreements may include the transfer of intellectual property rights in the form of licenses, promises to provide research and development services and promises to participate on certain development committees with the collaboration party. We assess whether the promises in these agreements are considered distinct performance obligations that should be accounted for separately. Judgment is required to determine whether licenses to our intellectual property are distinct from the research and development services or participation on development committees.

The transaction price in each agreement is allocated to the identified performance obligations based on the standalone selling price (SSP) of each distinct performance obligation. Due to the early stage of our licensed technology, the license of such technology is typically combined with the research and development services and committee participation as one combined performance obligation.

Revenue associated with nonrefundable upfront license fees where the license fees and research and development activities cannot be accounted for as separate performance obligations is deferred and recognized as revenue over the expected period of performance using a cost-based input method. We utilize judgment to assess the pattern of delivery of the performance obligation. A cost-based input method of revenue recognition requires management to make estimates of costs to complete our performance obligations. In making such estimates, significant judgment is required to evaluate assumptions related to cost estimates. The cumulative effect of revisions to estimated costs to complete our performance obligations will be recorded in the period in which changes are identified and amounts can be reasonably estimated. A significant change in the assumptions and estimates could have a material impact on the timing and amount of revenue recognized in future periods.

At the inception of each agreement that includes development, regulatory or commercial milestone payments, we evaluate whether the milestones are considered probable of being reached and estimate the amount to be included in the transaction price by using the most likely amount method. If it is probable that a significant revenue reversal would not occur, the associated milestone value is included in the transaction price. The transaction price is allocated to each performance obligation in the agreement based on relative SSP. We typically determine SSPs using an adjusted market assessment approach model. Milestone payments that are not within our or the licensee’s control, such as regulatory approvals, are not considered probable of being achieved until those approvals are received. At the end of each subsequent reporting period, we re-evaluate the probability of achievement of each such milestone and any related constraint, and if necessary, adjust our estimates of the overall transaction price. Any such adjustments are recorded on a cumulative catch-up basis, which would affect revenues and earnings in the period of adjustment.

Certain judgments affect the application of our revenue recognition policy. For example, we record short-term and long-term deferred revenue based on our best estimate of when such revenue will be recognized. Short-term deferred revenue consists of amounts that are expected to be recognized as revenue in the next 12 months, and long-term deferred revenue consists of amounts that we do not expect will be recognized in the next 12 months. This estimate is based on the our current operating plan and, if our operating plan should change in the future, we may recognize a different amount of deferred revenue over the next 12-month period

Accrued Research and Development Expenses

As part of the process of preparing our financial statements, we are required to estimate and accrue expenses, the largest of which is related to research and development expenses, including those related to clinical studies and drug manufacturing. This process involves reviewing contracts and purchase orders, identifying and evaluating the services that have been performed on our behalf, and estimating the associated cost incurred for the services when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of the actual costs.

Costs for preclinical studies, clinical studies and manufacturing activities are recognized based on an evaluation of our vendors’ progress towards completion of specific tasks, using data such as patient enrollment, clinical site activations or information provided to us by our vendors regarding their actual costs incurred. Payments for these activities are based on the terms of individual contracts and payment timing may differ significantly from the period in which the services were performed. We determine accrual estimates through reports from and discussions with applicable personnel and outside service providers as to the progress or state of completion of studies, or the services completed. Our estimates of accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date are based on the facts and circumstances known at the time. Costs that are paid in advance of performance are deferred as a prepaid expense and amortized over the service period as the services are provided.

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For the years ended December 31, 2020 and 2019, there were no material changes from our estimates of accrued research and development expenses. We do not believe there is a reasonable likelihood that there will be a material change in the future estimates of accrued research and development expenses. However, if actual results are not consistent with our estimates, we may be exposed to changes in accrued research and development expenses that could be material or the accrued research and development expenses reported in our financial statements may not be representative of the actual economic cost of accrued research and development.

Stock-based Compensation

We have stock-based compensation programs, which include restricted stock units (RSUs); stock options and an employee stock purchase plan. See Note 2 – “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” and Note 10 – “Stockholders' Equity” in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data of this report for a complete discussion of our stock-based compensation programs. We account for stock-based compensation expense, including the expense for grants of RSUs and stock options that may be settled in shares of our common stock, based on the fair values of the equity instruments issued. The fair value is determined on the measurement date, which is generally the date of grant. The fair value of our RSUs is the fair value of the underlying stock at the measurement date. The fair value for our stock option awards is determined at the grant date using the Black-Scholes valuation model.

Assumptions for the Black-Scholes valuation model used for employee stock awards include:

For awards with performance-based vesting criteria, we assess the probability of the achievement of the performance conditions at the end of each reporting period and begin to recognize the share-based compensation costs when it becomes probable that the performance conditions will be met. For awards that are subject to both service and performance conditions, no expense is recognized until it is probable that performance conditions will be met. We do not believe there is a reasonable likelihood that there will be a material change in the future estimates or assumptions we use to determine stock-based compensation expense. However, if actual results are not consistent with our estimates or assumptions, we may be exposed to changes in stock-based compensation expense that could be material or the stock-based compensation expense reported in our financial statements may not be representative of the actual economic cost of the stock-based compensation.

Accounting for Income Taxes

See Note 11 – “Income Taxes” in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data of this report for a complete discussion of the components of Atara's income tax expense, as well as the temporary differences that exist as of December 31, 2020.

Our consolidated effective income tax rate is influenced by tax planning opportunities available to us in the various jurisdictions in which we conduct business. Significant judgment is required in evaluating our tax positions, including those that may be uncertain. Atara is also required to exercise judgment with respect to the realization of our net deferred tax assets. Management evaluates all positive and negative evidence and exercises judgment regarding past and future events to determine if it is more likely than not that all or some portion of the deferred tax assets may not be realized. If appropriate, a valuation allowance is recorded against deferred tax assets to offset future tax benefits that may not be realized.

We do not believe that there is a reasonable likelihood that there will be a material change in our liability for uncertain income tax positions or our effective income tax rate. However, if actual results are not consistent with our estimates or assumptions, we may be exposed to losses that could be material. Atara recorded a valuation allowance of approximately $287.3 million as of December 31, 2020 related primarily to net operating losses, capitalized expenses and stock-based compensation.

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Results of Operations

Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2020, 2019 and 2018

Research and development expenses

Research and development expenses consisted of the following costs, by program, in the periods presented:

Tab-cel^® expenses were $61.2 million in 2020 as compared to $49.2 million in 2019 and $50.8 million in 2018. Tab-cel^® expenses increased in 2020 due to clinical trials and process performance qualification activities at our manufacturing facility, as well as increased activity to support our tab-cel^® BLA filing. The slight decrease in 2019 as compared to 2018 was primarily due to higher clinical trial and manufacturing costs in 2018 related to the ramp up of the MATCH and ALLELE Phase 3 clinical studies for patients with EBV+ PTLD.

ATA188, CAR T and other program expenses were $25.1 million in 2020 as compared to $34.9 million in 2019 and $30.2 million in 2018. The decrease in 2020 was primarily due to lower clinical study, manufacturing and other outside services costs for programs that are no longer in active development. The increase in 2019 was primarily related to research and manufacturing process development costs related to our CAR T programs; increased clinical study, manufacturing and other outside service costs related to the Phase 1 clinical study of ATA188 for patients with PMS; and other programs.

Employee and overhead expenses were $158.3 million in 2020 as compared to $132.0 million in 2019 and $86.5 million in 2018. The increases were primarily due to higher compensation-related costs from increased headcount and higher facility-related costs in support of our continuing expansion of research and development activities. Payroll and related costs increased by $21.2 million in 2020 as compared to 2019 and by $29.6 million in 2019 as compared to 2018. Facility-related costs increased by $5.1 million in 2020 as compared to 2019 and by $10.4 million in 2019 as compared to 2018. Outside service costs remained consistent in 2020 as compared to 2019 and increased by $5.6 million in 2019 as compared to 2018.

Total research and development expenses for 2020 were not significantly impacted as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

General and administrative expenses

General and administrative expenses for the periods indicated were as follows:

General and administrative expenses were $64.4 million in 2020 as compared to $79.6 million in 2019 and $69.7 million in 2018. The decrease of $15.2 million in 2020 was primarily due to decreases of $10.1 million in outside services costs and $5.1 million in non-cash stock-based compensation expenses. The increase of $9.9 million in 2019 was primarily due to increases in compensation-related costs driven by increased headcount. Total general and administrative expenses for 2020 were not significantly impacted as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Quarterly Results of Operations Data (unaudited)

The following table sets forth our unaudited consolidated statement of operations data for each of the quarterly periods in the years ended December 31, 2020 and 2019. The unaudited quarterly statement of operations data set forth below have been prepared on a basis consistent with our audited annual consolidated financial statements in this Annual Report on Form 10-K and include, in our opinion, all normal recurring adjustments necessary for a fair statement of the financial information contained in those statements. Our historical results are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected in the future. The following quarterly financial data should be read in conjunction with our audited consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.