INDEPENDENCE REALTY TRUST, INC. - Annual Report: 2018 (Form 10-K)

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One) 

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2018

or

For the Transition Period from                      to                     .

Commission file number 001-36041

INDEPENDENCE REALTY TRUST, INC.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

(267) 270-4800

(Registrant’s telephone number, including area code)

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934:

None

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Act.    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark if disclosure of delinquent filers pursuant to Item 405 of Regulation S-K is not contained herein, and will not be contained, to the best of the registrant’s knowledge, in definitive proxy or information statements incorporated by reference in Part III of this Form 10-K or any amendment to this Form 10-K.  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by checkmark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Act).    Yes  ☐    No  ☒

The aggregate market value of the shares of common stock of the registrant held by non-affiliates of the registrant, based upon the closing price of such shares on June 29, 2018 of $10.31, was approximately $901,228,223.11.

As of February 20, 2019 there were 89,253,537 outstanding shares of the registrant’s common stock issued and outstanding.

DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

Portions of the proxy statement for registrant’s 2019 Annual Meeting of Stockholders are incorporated by reference in Part III of this Form 10-K.

INDEPENDENCE REALTY TRUST, INC.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXPLANATORY NOTE

As used herein, the terms “we,” “our” “us” and “IRT” refer to Independence Realty Trust, Inc. and, as required by context, Independence Realty Operating Partnership, LP, which we refer to as IROP, and their subsidiaries. Our multifamily apartment communities are referred to as “communities,” “properties,” “apartment properties,” and “multifamily properties.”

CAUTIONARY STATEMENT REGARDING FORWARD LOOKING STATEMENTS

The Securities and Exchange Commission (the “SEC”), encourages companies to disclose forward-looking information so that investors can better understand a company’s future prospects and make informed investment decisions. This annual report on Form 10-K contains or incorporates by reference such “forward-looking statements” within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended.

Words such as “anticipates,” “estimates,” “expects,” “projects,” “intends,” “plans,” “believes” and words and terms of similar substance used in connection with any discussion of future operating or financial performance identify forward-looking statements.

We claim the protection of the safe harbor for forward-looking statements provided in the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. These statements may be made directly in this annual report on Form 10-K and they may also be incorporated by reference in this annual report on Form 10-K to other documents filed with the SEC, and include, without limitation, statements about future financial and operating results and performance, statements about our plans, objectives, expectations and intentions with respect to future operations, products and services, and other statements that are not historical facts. These forward-looking statements are based upon the current beliefs and expectations of our management and are inherently subject to significant business, economic and competitive uncertainties and contingencies, many of which are difficult to predict and generally beyond our control. In addition, these forward-looking statements are subject to assumptions with respect to future business strategies and decisions that are subject to change. Actual results may differ materially from the anticipated results discussed in these forward-looking statements.

The risk factors discussed and identified in Item 1A of this annual report on Form 10-K and in other of our public filings with the SEC could cause actual results to differ materially from the anticipated results or other expectations expressed in the forward-looking statements. We caution you not to place undue reliance on these forward-looking statements, which speak only as of the date of this annual report on Form 10-K. All subsequent written and oral forward-looking statements attributable to us or any person acting on our behalf are expressly qualified in their entirety by the cautionary statements contained or referred to in this section. Except to the extent required by applicable law or regulation, we undertake no obligation to update these forward-looking statements to reflect events or circumstances after the date of this filing or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events.

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PART I

Our Company

We are a self-administered and self-managed Maryland real estate investment trust (“REIT”), that acquires, owns, operates, improves and manages multifamily apartment communities across non-gateway U.S. markets.  As of December 31, 2018, we owned and operated 58 multifamily apartment properties that contain 15,880 units. Our properties are located in Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Oklahoma, Indiana, Texas, Florida, South Carolina, Arkansas, Illinois, Missouri, Louisiana, and Alabama. We do not have any foreign operations and our business is not seasonal. Our executive offices are located at Two Liberty Place, 50 S. 16th Street, Suite 3575, Philadelphia, PA 19102 and our telephone number is (267) 270-4800. We have offices in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Chicago, Illinois.

Our Business Objective and Investment Strategies

Our primary business objective is to maximize stockholder value through diligent portfolio management, strong operational performance, and a consistent return of capital through distributions and capital appreciation.  Our investment strategy is focused on the following:

We seek to achieve these objectives by executing the following strategies:

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2018 Developments

Value Add Initiative

During 2018, we made strides in the roll out of our value add initiative, a core component of our growth strategy, which is comprised of renovations and upgrades at selected communities to drive increased rental rates.  We have identified 4,314 units across 14 properties for renovations and upgrades as part of this initiative, and estimate the total investment to complete these renovations and upgrades will aggregate approximately $50.0 million.  As of December 31, 2018, we had completed renovations and upgrades at 1,232 of the 4,314 units. We expect to complete the remaining value add projects at the selected communities during 2019 and through the first half of 2020.

2018 Property Acquisitions

During 2018, we acquired eight communities, totaling 2,379 units, for a gross purchase price of $272.9 million. The acquisitions expand our reach in existing markets, including Columbus, OH, Tampa, FL, Atlanta, GA, and Indianapolis, IN. The communities were built or renovated between 1986 and 2013. The acquired units had occupancy of 95.7% and had an average effective monthly rent per occupied unit of $991 at the time of acquisition.

2018 Property Dispositions

During 2018, we disposed of two communities, totaling 516 units, for a gross sale price of $77.3 million. The dispositions represent our exit from Greenville, SC and Jackson, MS, smaller markets where we lack scale and/or markets where we believe that growth is slowing.

2018 At-the-Market Offering

During 2018, we issued 2,196,164 shares of common stock under our at-the-market offering program at an average price per share of $10.32, generating proceeds to us (net of approximately $0.5 million in commissions) of approximately $22.2 million. We used these proceeds to fund value add initiatives during 2018 and to reduce borrowings on our unsecured credit facility. As of December 31, 2018, approximately $115.2 million remained available for share issuances under our at-the-market program.

New Term Loan Agreement

On October 30, 2018, we entered into a five-year, $200.0 million unsecured term loan agreement with KeyBank National Association (“KeyBank”). The loan matures in January 2024 and bears interest at a spread over LIBOR, based on our overall leverage. At closing, the spread to LIBOR was 145 basis points. At closing, we drew $150.0 million under the loan. We drew the remaining $50.0 million in February 2019. We applied proceeds of both draws to reduce outstanding borrowings under our unsecured credit facility. In connection with our new term loan, we purchased an interest rate collar with an initial notional value of $100.0 million, increasing to $150.0 million, a 2.5%, cap a 2.25% floor, and a maturity date of January 17, 2024.

Financing Strategy

We use a combination of debt and equity sources to fund our business objectives. We seek to maintain a capital structure that provides us with the flexibility to manage our business and pursue our growth strategies, while allowing us to service our debt requirements and generate appropriate risk-adjusted returns for our stockholders. We believe these objectives are best achieved by a capital structure that consists of common equity and prudent amounts of debt financing. However, we may raise capital in any form and under terms that we deem acceptable and in our best interests.  Our longer-term goal is to reduce our leverage ratio by growing the net operating income at our communities through rental increases, including those driven by value add initiatives, and prudent expense management. If our Board of Directors changes our policies regarding our use of leverage, we expect that it will consider many factors, including, our long-term strategic plan, the leverage ratios of publicly traded REITs with similar investment strategies, the cost of leverage as compared to expected operating net revenues and general market conditions. For further description of our indebtedness at December 31, 2018, see “Part II-Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data-Note 5: Indebtedness” below, or the financial statement indebtedness note. See also “Part I-Item 1A. Risk Factors – Risks Associated with Debt Financing” below for more information about the risks related to operating on a leveraged basis.

Development and Structure of Our Company; Segment

We were formed as a Maryland corporation on March 26, 2009. At such time, we were externally managed by our advisor, a subsidiary of RAIT Financial Trust (“RAIT”), a publicly traded Maryland REIT whose common shares trade over-the-counter on the OTCQB under the symbol “RASF”.  We became internally managed as of December 20, 2016 when we acquired our advisor from RAIT and terminated the associated advisory agreement.  Upon internalization, we became responsible for managing our day-to-day business operations and our own portfolio of assets.

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In connection with the management internalization, we acquired the multifamily property management business of RAIT on December 20, 2016 and we hired substantially all of the related employees.  We now operate that business in our wholly owned subsidiary, IRT Management, LLC (“IRT Management”), which was formed on October 26, 2016.  IRT Management is a full-service apartment property management company that, as of December 31, 2018, employed 451 staff and professionals and managed 15,880 apartment units, all of which are owned by us. IRT Management provides services to us in connection with the rental, leasing, operation and management of our properties.

We conduct our business through a traditional umbrella partnership REIT (“UPREIT”), structure in which all of our assets are held by, and substantially all of our operations are conducted through, our operating partnership, Independence Realty Operating Partnership, LP, which we refer to as IROP, and subsidiaries of IROP. IROP was formed as a Delaware limited partnership on March 27, 2009. We are the sole general partner of IROP and manage and control its business.  As of December 31, 2018, we owned a 99.0% interest in IROP. The remaining 1.0% consists of common units of limited partnership interest issued to third parties in exchange for contributions of properties to IROP.  We refer to these transactions as UPREIT transactions. Limited partners have certain limited approval and voting rights and their common units are exchangeable, in defined circumstances, for the equivalent number of shares of common stock or, at our option, the equivalent value in cash.

Substantially all of our assets are comprised of multifamily real estate assets generally leased to tenants on a one-year basis. Therefore, we aggregate our real estate assets for reporting purposes and operate in one reportable segment, see “Part II-Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data-Note 12: Segment Reporting” below.

Competition

In attracting and retaining residents to occupy our properties, we compete with numerous other housing alternatives. Our properties compete directly with other rental apartments as well as condominiums and single-family homes that are available for rent or purchase in the sub-markets in which our properties are located. Principal factors of competition include rent or price charged, attractiveness of the location and property, and quality and breadth of services and amenities. If our competitors offer leases at rental rates below current market rates, or below the rental rates we currently charge our tenants, we may lose potential tenants.

The number of competitive properties relative to demand in a particular area has a material effect on our ability to lease apartment units at our properties and on the rents we charge. In certain sub-markets there exists an oversupply of single family homes and condominiums and a reduction of households, both of which affect the pricing and occupancy of our rental apartments. Additionally, we compete with other real estate investors, including other apartment REITs, pension and investment funds, partnerships and investment companies in acquiring, redeveloping and managing apartment properties. This competition affects our ability to acquire properties and the price that we pay for such acquisitions.

Employees

As of February 13, 2019, we had 455 employees and believe our relationships with our employees to be good. None of our employees are covered by a collective bargaining agreement.

Regulation

Our investments are subject to various federal, state, and local laws, ordinances, and regulations, including, among other things, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988, zoning regulations, land use controls, environmental controls relating to air and water quality, noise pollution, and indirect environmental impacts such as increased motor vehicle activity, and fair housing laws. We believe that we have all permits and approvals necessary under current law to operate our investments.

Environmental Matters

As a part of our standard due diligence process for acquisitions, we generally obtain environmental studies of the sites from outside environmental engineering firms. The purpose of these studies is to identify potential sources of contamination at the site and to assess the status of environmental regulatory compliance. These studies generally include historical reviews of the site, reviews of certain public records, preliminary investigations of the site and surrounding properties, inspection for the presence of asbestos, poly-chlorinated biphenyls (“PCBs”), and underground storage tanks and the preparation and issuance of written reports. Depending on the results of these studies, more invasive procedures, such as soil sampling or ground water analysis, may be performed to investigate potential sources of contamination. The environmental studies we received on properties that we have acquired have not revealed any material environmental liabilities. Should any potential environmental risks or conditions be discovered during our due diligence

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process, the potential costs of remediation will be assessed carefully and factored into the cost of acquisition, assuming the identified risks and factors are deemed to be manageable and within reason. We are not aware of any existing conditions that we believe would be considered a material environmental liability. Nevertheless, it is possible that the studies do not reveal all environmental risks or that there are material environmental liabilities of which we are not aware. Moreover, no assurance can be given concerning future laws, ordinances or regulations, or the potential introduction of hazardous or toxic substances by neighboring properties or residents.

Trade Street Residential Merger

On September 17, 2015, we acquired Trade Street Residential, Inc (“TSRE”), through a merger transaction. Through this transaction we added 19 properties to our then existing portfolio. The consolidated net assets and results of operations of TSRE have been included in our consolidated financial statements from and after the closing date of the transaction. As of January 1, 2017, the operating results of the TSRE assets were included in our same store operating results.

Qualification as a Real Estate Investment Trust

We elected to be taxed as a REIT under the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, (the “Code”), commencing with our taxable year ended December 31, 2011. We recorded no income tax expense for the years ended December 31, 2018, 2017, and 2016.

To continue to qualify as a REIT, we must continue to meet certain tests which, among other things, generally require that our assets consist primarily of real estate assets, our income be derived primarily from real estate assets, and that we distribute at least 90% of our REIT taxable income (other than our net capital gains) to our stockholders annually. If we maintain our qualification as a REIT, we generally will not be subject to U.S. federal income taxes at the corporate level on our net income to the extent we distribute such net income to our stockholders annually. Even if we continue to qualify as a REIT, we will continue to be subject to certain federal, state and local taxes on our income and our property.  Our 2018 distributions to our stockholders exceeded our REIT taxable income. We believe that we are organized and operate in such a manner as to continue to qualify and maintain treatment as a REIT and we intend to operate in such a manner so that we will remain qualified as a REIT for federal income tax purposes.   For a discussion of the tax implications of our REIT status to us and our stockholders, see “Material U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations” contained in Exhibit 99.1 to this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

The table below reconciles the differences between reported net income (loss), total taxable income and estimated REIT taxable income for the three years ended December 31, 2018 (dollars in thousands):

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 For the year ended December 31, 2018, the tax classification of our dividends on common shares was as follows:

The dividend that we paid on January 24, 2019 to holders of record on December 27, 2018 will be treated as a 2019 distribution for tax purposes.

For the year ended December 31, 2017, the tax classification of our dividends on common shares was as follows:

The dividend that we paid on January 15, 2018 to holders of record on December 29, 2017 was treated as a 2018 distribution for tax purposes.

Available Information

We file annual, quarterly and current reports, proxy statements and other information with the SEC. The SEC maintains an internet site that contains reports, proxy and information statements, and other information regarding issuers that file electronically with the SEC. The internet address of the SEC site is http://www.sec.gov. Our internet address is http://www.irtliving.com. We make our SEC filings available free of charge on or through our internet website as soon as reasonably practicable after we electronically file such material with, or furnish it to, the SEC. In addition, the charters of our Board’s Compensation Committee, Audit Committee, and Nominating and Governance Committee, as well as our Corporate Governance Guidelines, Insider Trading Policy, Whistle Blower Policy, Code of Ethics, Stock Ownership Guidelines, and Section 16 Reporting Compliance Procedures, are available on our website free of charge. We are not incorporating by reference into this report any material from our website. The reference to our website is an inactive textual reference to the uniform resource locator (URL) and is for your reference only.

Code of Ethics

We maintain a Code of Ethics applicable to our Board of Directors and all of our officers and employees, including our principal executive officer, principal financial officer, principal accounting officer, controller and persons performing similar functions. A copy of our Code of Ethics is available on our website, www.irtliving.com. In addition to being accessible through our website, copies of our Code of Ethics can be obtained, free of charge, upon written request to Investor Relations, Two Liberty Place, 50 S. 16th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102. Any amendments to or waivers of our Code of Ethics that apply to our principal executive officer, principal financial officer, principal accounting officer, controller and persons performing similar functions and that relate to any matter enumerated in Item 406(b) of Regulation S-K promulgated by the SEC will be disclosed on our website.

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ITEM 1A.  Risk Factors

You should carefully consider these risk factors, together with all of the other information included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including our consolidated financial statements and the related notes thereto, before you decide whether to make an investment in our securities. The risks set out below are not the only risks we face. Additional risks and uncertainties not currently known to us or that we currently deem to be immaterial also may materially and adversely affect our business, prospects, financial condition, cash flows, liquidity, funds from operations, results of operations, stock price, ability to service our indebtedness, and/or ability to make cash distributions to our security holders (including those necessary to maintain our REIT qualification).  In such case, the value of our common stock and the trading price of our securities could decline, and you may lose all or a significant part of your investment. Some statements in the following risk factors constitute forward looking statements. Please refer to the explanation of the qualifications and limitations on forward-looking statements under “Forward-Looking Statements” of this Form 10-K.

Risks Related to Our Business and Operations

We are dependent on a concentration of our investments in a single asset class, making our results of operations more vulnerable to a downturn in the sector.

As of December 31, 2018, substantially all of our investments are concentrated in the multifamily apartment sector.  As a result, we are subject to risks inherent in investments in a single type of property. A downturn or slowdown in the demand for multifamily housing may have more pronounced effects on our results of operations or on the value of our assets than if we had diversified our investments into more than one asset class.

Our operations are concentrated in the Southeast region of the United States; we are subject to general economic conditions in the regions in which we operate.

Our portfolio of properties consists primarily of apartment communities geographically concentrated in the Southeastern United States, including Louisville, Kentucky, Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina, Atlanta, Georgia, Memphis, Tennessee, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Dallas, Texas, Columbus, Ohio, and Tampa, Florida.  Our performance could be adversely affected by economic conditions in, and other factors relating to, these geographic areas, including supply and demand for apartments in these areas, zoning and other regulatory conditions and competition from other communities and alternative forms of housing. In particular our performance is disproportionately influenced by job growth and unemployment. To the extent the economic conditions, job growth and unemployment in any of these markets deteriorate or any of these areas experiences natural disasters, the value of our portfolio, our results of operations and our ability to make payments on our debt and to make distributions could be adversely affected.

Adverse economic conditions may reduce or eliminate our returns and profitability and, as a result, our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.

Our operating results may be materially and adversely affected by market and economic challenges, which may reduce or eliminate our returns and profitability and, as a result, our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.  These market and economic challenges include, principally, the following:

The length and severity of any economic slow-down or downturn cannot be predicted.  Our results of operations financial condition and ability to make distributions to our stockholders could be negatively affected to the extent that an economic slow-down or downturn is prolonged or severe.

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We depend on residents for revenue, and vacancies, resident defaults or lease terminations may cause a material decline in our operating results.

The success of our investments depends upon the occupancy levels, rental revenue and operating expenses of our apartment communities.  Our revenues may be adversely affected by the general or local economic climate, local real estate considerations (such as oversupply of or reduced demand for apartment units), the perception by prospective residents of the safety, convenience and attractiveness of the areas in which our apartment communities are located (including the quality of local schools and other amenities) and increased operating costs (including real estate taxes and utilities).

Occupancy rates and rents at a community, including apartment communities that are newly constructed or renovated and in the lease-up phase, may fail to meet our original expectations for a number of reasons, including changes in market and economic conditions beyond our control and the development by competitors of competing communities, and we may be unable to complete lease-up of a community on schedule, resulting in increased construction and financing costs and a decrease or delay in expected rental revenues.

Vacancy rates may increase in the future and we may be unable to lease vacant units or renew expiring leases on attractive terms, or at all, and we may be required to offer reduced rental rates or other concessions to residents.  Our revenues may be lower as a result of lower occupancy rates, increased turnover, reduced rental rates, increased economic concessions and potential increases in uncollectible rent.  In addition, we will continue to incur expenses, including maintenance costs, insurance costs and property taxes, even though a property maintains a high vacancy rate, and our financial performance will suffer if our revenues decrease or our costs increase.

The underlying value of our properties and our ability to make distributions to our stockholders will depend upon our ability to lease our available apartment units and the ability of our residents to generate enough income to pay their rents in a timely manner.  Our residents’ inability to pay rents may be impacted by employment and other constraints on their personal finances, including debts, purchases and other factors.  Upon a resident default, we will attempt to remove the resident from the premises and re-lease the unit as promptly as possible.  Our ability and the time required to evict a resident, however, will depend on applicable law.  Substantially all of the leases for our properties are short-term leases (generally, one year or less in duration).  As a result, our rental income and our cash flow are impacted by declines in market conditions more quickly than if our leases were for longer terms.

Our investment strategy may limit an increase in the diversification of our investments.

Our ability to diversify our portfolio may be limited both as to the number of investments owned and the geographic regions in which our investments are located.  While we will seek to diversify our portfolio by geographic location, we expect to continue to focus on markets with high potential for attractive returns located in the United States and, accordingly, our actual investments may continue to result in concentrations in a limited number of geographic regions.  As a result, there is an increased likelihood that the performance of any single property, or the economic performance of a particular region in which our properties are located, could materially affect our operating results.

We may fail to consummate one or more property acquisitions or dispositions that we anticipate, whether as part of our capital recycling strategy or otherwise, and this failure could have a material adverse impact on our financial results.

We may disclose anticipated property acquisitions or dispositions, including prior to our entry into a letter of intent or definitive agreement for such acquisition or disposition and prior to our completion of due diligence or satisfaction of closing conditions.  Acquisitions and dispositions are inherently subject to a number of factors and conditions, some of which are outside of our control, and there can be no assurance that we will be able to consummate acquisitions or dispositions that we anticipate. If we fail to consummate a disposition that we anticipated, we will not have the use of the proceeds from the disposition and may not be able to carry out our intended plans for use of such proceeds and may be required to obtain alternative sources of funds on less favorable terms.  If we fail to consummate a targeted acquisition and have issued additional securities to fund such acquisition, then we will have issued securities without realizing a corresponding increase in earnings and cash flow from the targeted acquisition. In addition, we may have broad authority to use the net proceeds of an offering of securities for other purposes, including the repayment of indebtedness, the acquisition of other properties or for other investments, which may not be initially accretive to our results of

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operations. As a result, failure to consummate one or more anticipated acquisitions or dispositions could have a material adverse impact on our financial condition, results of operations and the market price of our common stock.

We may suffer from delays in locating suitable investments or, because of our public company status, may be unable to acquire otherwise suitable investments, which could adversely affect our growth prospects and results of operations.

Our ability to achieve our investment objectives and to make distributions to our stockholders depends upon our ability to locate, obtain financing for and consummate the acquisition of apartment properties that meet our investment criteria.  The current market for apartment properties that meet our investment criteria is highly competitive.  We cannot be sure that we will be successful in obtaining suitable investments on financially attractive terms or at all.

Additionally, as a public company, we are subject to the ongoing reporting requirements under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, (the “Exchange Act”).  Pursuant to the Exchange Act, we may be required to file with the SEC financial statements for the properties we acquire.  To the extent any required financial statements are not available or cannot be obtained, we may not be able to acquire the property.  As a result, we may be unable to acquire certain properties that otherwise would be suitable investments.

If we are unable to invest the proceeds of any offering of our securities in real properties in a timely manner, we may invest the proceeds in short-term, investment-grade investments which typically will yield significantly less than what we expect our investments will yield.  As a result, delays we encounter in identifying and consummating potential acquisitions may adversely affect our growth prospects, results of operations and our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.

If we are unable to retain or obtain key personnel, our ability to implement our investment strategies could be hindered, which could reduce our ability to make distributions and adversely affect the trading price of our common stock.

Our success depends to a significant degree upon the contributions of certain of our officers and other key personnel.  If any of our key personnel were to terminate their employment with us, our operating results could suffer.  Further, we do not have and do not intend to maintain key person life insurance that would provide us with proceeds in the event of death or disability of any of our key personnel.  We believe our future success depends upon our ability to hire and retain highly skilled managerial, operational and marketing personnel.  Competition for such personnel is intense, and we cannot assure you that we will be successful in attracting and retaining such skilled personnel.  If we lose or are unable to obtain the services of key personnel, our ability to implement our investment strategies could be delayed or hindered, and the trading price of our common stock may be adversely affected.

If we fail to maintain an effective system of integrated internal controls, we may not be able to accurately report our financial results and may be required to incur additional costs and divert management resources.

We depend on our ability to produce accurate and timely financial statements in order to run our business.  If we fail to do so, our business could be negatively affected and our independent registered public accounting firm may be unable to attest to the accuracy of our financial statements.  A deficiency in internal control exists when the design or operation of a control does not allow management or employees, in the normal course of performing their assigned functions, to prevent, or detect and correct, misstatements on a timely basis.  A significant deficiency is defined as a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting that is less severe than a material weakness, yet important enough to merit attention by those responsible for oversight of a registrant’s financial reporting.  A material weakness is a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the entity’s financial statements will not be prevented or detected and corrected, on a timely basis by the company’s internal controls.

Although we continuously monitor the design, implementation and operating effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting and disclosure controls and procedures, there can be no assurance that significant deficiencies or material weaknesses will not occur in the future.  If we fail to maintain effective internal controls and disclosure controls in the future, it could result in a material misstatement of our financial statements that may not be prevented or detected on a timely basis, which could cause investors, analysts and others to lose confidence in our reported financial information.  Our inability to remedy any additional deficiencies or material weaknesses that may be identified in the future could, among other things, cause us to fail to file timely our periodic reports with the SEC (which may have a material adverse effect on our ability to access the capital markets); prevent us from providing reliable and accurate financial information and forecasts or from avoiding or detecting fraud; or require us to incur additional costs or divert management resources to achieve compliance.

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We may be adversely affected by changes in state and local tax laws and may become subject to tax audits from time to time. 

Because we are organized and qualified as a REIT, we are generally not subject to federal income taxes, but we are subject to certain state and local taxes. From time to time, changes in state and local tax laws or regulations are enacted, which may result in an increase in our tax liability. A shortfall in tax revenues for states and local jurisdictions in which we own apartment communities may lead to an increase in the frequency and size of such changes. If such changes occur, we may be required to pay additional state and local taxes. These increased tax costs could adversely affect our financial condition and the amount of cash available for distribution to our stockholders. In the normal course of business, we or our affiliates (including entities through which we own real estate) may also become subject to federal, state or local tax audits. If we (or such entities) become subject to federal, state or local tax audits, the ultimate result of such audits could have an adverse effect on our financial condition.

If we are not able to cost-effectively maximize the life of our properties, we may incur greater than anticipated capital expenditure costs, which may adversely affect our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.

As of December 31, 2018, the average age of our apartment communities was approximately 18 years, after adjusting for significant renovations.  While the majority of our properties are newly-constructed or have undergone substantial renovations since they were constructed, older properties may carry certain risks including unanticipated repair costs, increased maintenance costs as older properties continue to age, and cost overruns due to the need for special materials and/or fixtures specific to older properties.  Although we take a proactive approach to property preservation, utilizing a preventative maintenance plan, and selective improvements that mitigate the cost impact of maintaining exterior building features and aging building components, if we are not able to cost-effectively maximize the life of our properties, we may incur greater than anticipated capital expenditure costs which may adversely affect our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.

Our growth will depend upon future acquisitions of multifamily apartment communities, and we may be unable to complete acquisitions on advantageous terms or acquisitions may not perform as we expect.

Our growth will depend upon future acquisitions of multifamily apartment communities, which entails various risks, including risks that our investments may not perform as we expect.  Further, we will face competition for attractive investment opportunities from other real estate investors, including local real estate investors and developers, as well as other multifamily REITs, income-oriented non-traded REITs, and private real estate fund managers, and these competitors may have greater financial resources than us and a greater ability to borrow funds to acquire properties.  This competition may increase as investments in real estate become increasingly attractive relative to other forms of investment.  As a result of competition, we may be unable to acquire additional properties as we desire or the purchase price may be significantly elevated.  In addition, our acquisition activities pose the following risks to our ongoing operations:

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Our growth depends on securing external sources of capital that are outside of our control, which may affect our ability to take advantage of strategic opportunities, satisfy debt obligations and make distributions to our stockholders.

In order to maintain our qualification as a REIT, we are generally required under the Code to distribute annually at least 90% of our REIT taxable income, determined without regard to the dividends paid deduction and excluding any net capital gain.  In addition, we will be subject to income tax at regular corporate rates to the extent that we distribute less than 100% of our net taxable income, including any net capital gains.  Because of these distribution requirements, we may not be able to fund future capital needs, including any necessary acquisition financing, from operating cash flow.  Consequently, we may rely on third-party sources to fund our capital needs.  We may not be able to obtain financing on favorable terms or at all.  Any additional debt we incur may increase our leverage or impose additional and more stringent restrictions on our operations than we currently have. If we issue additional equity securities to finance developments and acquisitions instead of incurring debt, the interests of our existing stockholders could be diluted.  Our access to third-party sources of capital depends, in part, on:

If we cannot obtain capital from third-party sources, we may not be able to acquire properties when strategic opportunities exist, meet the capital and operating needs of our existing properties or satisfy our debt service obligations.  Further, in order to meet the REIT distribution requirements and maintain our REIT status and to avoid the payment of income and excise taxes, we may need to borrow funds on a short-term basis even if the then-prevailing market conditions are not favorable for these borrowings.  These short-term borrowing needs could result from differences in timing between the actual receipt of cash and inclusion of income for U.S. federal income tax purposes or the effect of non-deductible capital expenditures, the creation of reserves, certain restrictions on distributions under loan documents or required debt or amortization payments.

To the extent that capital is not available to acquire properties, profits may not be realized or their realization may be delayed, which could result in an earnings stream that is less predictable than some of our competitors and result in us not meeting our projected earnings and distributable cash flow levels in a particular reporting period.  Failure to meet our projected earnings and distributable cash flow levels in a particular reporting period could have an adverse effect on our financial condition and on the market price of our common stock.

We may be subject to contingent or unknown liabilities related to properties or business that we have acquired or may acquire for which we may have limited or no recourse against the sellers.

The properties or businesses that we have acquired or may acquire may be subject to unknown or contingent liabilities for which we have limited or no recourse against the sellers.  Unknown liabilities might include liabilities for, among other things, cleanup or remediation of undisclosed environmental conditions, liabilities under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, (“ERISA”), claims of residents, vendors or other persons dealing with the entities prior to the acquisition of such property, tax liabilities, and accrued but unpaid liabilities whether incurred in the ordinary course of business or otherwise.  Because many liabilities, including tax liabilities, may not be identified within the applicable contractual indemnification period, we may have no recourse against any of the owners from whom we acquired such properties for these liabilities.  The existence of such liabilities could significantly adversely affect the value of the property subject to such liability.  As a result, if a liability was asserted against us based on ownership of any of such properties, then we might have to pay substantial sums to settle it, which could adversely affect our cash flows.

We may experience a decline in the fair value of our assets and be forced to recognize impairment charges, which could materially and adversely impact our financial condition, liquidity and results of operations and the market price of our common stock. 

A decline in the fair value of our assets may require us to recognize an impairment against such assets under generally accepted accounting principles as in effect in the United States (“GAAP”), if we were to determine that, with respect to any assets in unrealized loss positions, we do not have the ability and intent to hold such assets to maturity or for a period of time sufficient to allow for recovery to the amortized cost of such assets. If such a determination were to be made, we would recognize unrealized losses through earnings and write down the amortized cost of such assets to a new cost basis, based on the fair value of such assets on the date they are considered to be impaired. Such impairment charges reflect non-cash losses at the time of recognition; subsequent disposition or sale of such assets could further affect our future losses or gains, as they are based on the difference between the sale price received and adjusted amortized cost of such assets at the time of sale. If we are required to recognize asset impairment charges

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in the future, these charges could materially and adversely affect our financial condition, liquidity, results of operations and the per share trading price of our common stock.

Representations and warranties made by us in connection with sales of our properties may subject us to liability that could result in losses and could harm our operating results and, therefore distributions we make to our stockholders.

When we sell a property, we may be required to make representations and warranties regarding the property and other customary items.  In the event of a breach of such representations or warranties, the purchaser of the property may have claims for damages against us, rights to indemnification from us or otherwise have remedies against us.  In any such case, we may incur liabilities that could result in losses and could harm our operating results and, therefore distributions we make to our stockholders.

We rely on information technology systems in our operations, and any breach or security failure of those systems could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition and reputation.

Our information technology networks and related systems are essential to our ability to conduct our day to day operations.  As a result, we face risks associated with security breaches, whether through cyber attacks or cyber intrusions over the internet, malware, computer viruses, attachments to emails, persons who access our systems from inside or outside our organization and other significant disruptions of our information technology networks and related systems.  A security breach or other significant disruption involving our information technology networks and related systems or those of our vendors could:  disrupt our operations; result in the unauthorized access to, and the destruction, loss, theft, misappropriation or release of, proprietary, personally identifiable, confidential, sensitive or otherwise valuable information including tenant information and lease data, which others could use to compete against us or which could expose us to damage claims by third parties for disruptive, destructive or otherwise harmful outcomes; require significant management attention and resources to remedy any damages that result; subject us to claims for breach of contract, damages, credits, penalties or termination of leases or other agreements; or damage our business relationships or reputation generally.  Any or all of the foregoing could materially and adversely affect our business and the value of our stock.

Our third-party service providers are primarily responsible for the security of their own information technology environments and in certain instances, we rely significantly on third-party service providers to supply and store our sensitive data in a secure manner.  All of these third parties face risks relating to cybersecurity similar to ours which could disrupt their businesses and therefore adversely impact us.  While we provide guidance and specific requirements in some cases, we do not directly control any of such parties’ information technology security operations, or the amount of investment they place in guarding against cybersecurity threats.  Accordingly, we are subject to any flaws in or breaches to their information technology systems or those which they operate for us, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition or results of operations.

Although no material incidents have occurred to date and we have taken various actions to maintain the security and integrity of our information technology networks and related systems and have implemented various measures to manage the risk of a security breach or disruption, we cannot be sure that our security efforts and measures will be effective or that our financial results will not be negatively impacted by such an incident.

Changes in U.S. accounting standards may materially and adversely affect our reported results of operations. 

Accounting for public companies in the United States is in accordance with GAAP, which is established by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (the “FASB”), an independent body whose standards are recognized by the SEC as authoritative for publicly held companies. Uncertainties posed by various initiatives of accounting standard-setting by the FASB and the SEC, which create and interpret applicable accounting standards for U.S. companies, may change the financial accounting and reporting standards or their interpretation and application of these standards that govern the preparation of our financial statements. These changes could have a material impact on our reported financial condition and results of operations. In some cases, we could be required to apply a new or revised standard retroactively, resulting in potentially material restatements of prior period financial statements.

Bankruptcy or defaults of our counterparties could adversely affect our performance. 

We have relationships with and, from time to time, we execute transactions with or receive services from many counterparties, such as general contractors engaged in connection with our redevelopment activities. As a result, bankruptcies or defaults by these counterparties could result in services not being provided, projects not being completed on time, or on budget, or at all, or volatility in the financial markets and economic weakness could affect the counterparties’ ability to complete transactions with us as intended, both of which could result in disruptions to our operations that may materially adversely affect our business and results of operations.

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Our use of social media presents risks. 

The use of social media could cause us to suffer brand damage or unintended information disclosure. Negative posts or communications about us on a social networking website could damage our reputation. Further, employees or others may disclose non-public information regarding us or our business or otherwise make negative comments regarding us on social networking or other websites, which could adversely affect our business and results of operations. As social media evolves we will be presented with new risks and challenges.

Damage from catastrophic weather and other natural events and climate change could result in losses and could harm our operating results.

To the extent that significant changes in the climate occur in areas where our properties are located, we may experience extreme weather and changes in precipitation and temperature, all of which may result in physical damage to or a decrease in demand for properties located in these areas or affected by these conditions.  Should the impact of climate change be material in nature, including destruction of our properties, or occur for lengthy periods of time, our financial condition or results of operations may be adversely affected.

General Risks Related to Investments in Real Estate

We face numerous risks associated with the real estate industry that could adversely affect our results of operations through decreased revenues or increased costs.

As a real estate company, we are subject to various changes in real estate conditions and any negative trends in such real estate conditions may adversely affect our results of operations through decreased revenues or increased costs.  These conditions include:

Economic conditions may adversely affect the residential real estate market and our income.

A residential property’s income and value may be adversely affected by international, national and regional economic conditions.  During the past five years, the U.S. and international markets have experienced increased levels of volatility due to a combination of many factors, including decreased values of homes and commercial real estate, limited access to credit markets, increased energy costs, increased unemployment rates, and a national and global recession.  Although recently some economic conditions appear to have improved, if such improvement does not continue or if new economic or capital markets problems arise, the value of our portfolio may decline significantly.  A deterioration in economic conditions may also have an adverse effect on our operations if they result in our tenants or prospective tenants being unable to afford the rents we need to charge to be profitable.

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In addition, local real estate conditions such as an oversupply of properties or a reduction in demand for properties, availability of “for sale” properties and competition from other similar properties, our ability to provide adequate maintenance, insurance and management services, increased operating costs (including real estate taxes), the attractiveness and location of the property and changes in market rental rates, may adversely affect a property’s income and value.  A rise in energy costs could result in higher operating costs, which may affect our results from operations.  In addition, local conditions in the markets in which we own or intend to own properties may significantly affect occupancy or rental rates at such properties.  Layoffs, plant closings, relocations of significant local employers and other events reducing local employment rates and the local economy; an oversupply of, or a lack of demand for, apartments; a decline in household formation; the inability or unwillingness of residents to pay rent increases; and rent control, rent stabilization and other housing laws, all could prevent us from raising or maintaining rents, and could cause us to reduce rents.

We will face competition from third parties, including other apartment properties, which may limit our profitability and the return on any investment in our securities.

The apartment industry is highly competitive.  This competition may limit our ability to increase revenue and could reduce occupancy levels and revenues at our apartment properties.  We compete with many other entities engaged in real estate investment activities, including individuals, corporations, bank and insurance company investment accounts, other REITs, real estate limited partnerships, and other entities engaged in real estate investment activities.  Many of these entities have significant financial and other resources, including operating experience, allowing them to compete effectively with us.  Competitors with substantially greater financial resources than us may be able to accept more risk than we can effectively manage.  In addition, those competitors that are not REITs may be at an advantage to the extent they can use working capital to finance projects, while we (and our competitors that are REITs) will be required by the annual distribution provisions under the Code to distribute significant amounts of cash from operations to our stockholders.  Competition may also result in overbuilding of apartment properties, causing an increase in the number of apartment units available which could potentially decrease our occupancy and apartment rental rates.  We may also be required to expend substantial sums to attract new residents.  The resale value of the property could be diminished because the market value of a particular property will depend principally upon the net revenues generated by the property.  In addition, increases in operating costs due to inflation may not be offset by increased apartment rental rates.  Further, costs associated with real estate investment, such as real estate taxes and maintenance costs, generally are not reduced when circumstances cause a reduction in income from the investment.  These events would cause a significant decrease in revenues and the trading price of our common stock, and could cause us to reduce the amount of distributions to our stockholders.

The illiquidity of real estate investments could make it difficult for us to respond to changing economic, financial, and investment conditions or changes in the operating performance of our properties, which could reduce our cash flows and adversely affect results of operations.

Real estate investments are relatively illiquid and may become even more illiquid during periods of economic downturn.  As a result, we will have a limited ability to vary our portfolio in response to changes in economic, financial and investment conditions or changes in the operating performance of our properties.  We may not be able to sell a property or properties quickly or on favorable terms in response to changes in the economy or other conditions when it otherwise may be prudent to do so.  This inability to respond quickly to changes in the performance of our properties as a result of an economic or market downturn could adversely affect our results of operations if we cannot sell an unprofitable property.

We will also have a limited ability to sell assets in order to fund working capital, repay debt and similar capital needs.  Our financial condition could be adversely affected if we were, for example, unable to sell one or more of our properties in order to meet our debt obligations upon maturity.  We cannot predict whether we will be able to sell any property for the price or on the terms set by us, or whether any price or other terms offered by a prospective purchaser would be acceptable to us.  We also cannot predict the length of time needed to find a willing purchaser and to close the sale of a property.  We also may be required to expend funds to correct defects or to make improvements before a property can be sold, and we cannot assure you that we will have funds available to correct those defects or to make those improvements.  Our inability to dispose of assets at opportune times or on favorable terms could adversely affect our cash flows and results of operations.

Moreover, the Code imposes restrictions on a REIT’s ability to dispose of properties that are not applicable to other types of real estate companies.  In particular, the tax laws applicable to REITs require that we hold our properties for investment, rather than primarily for sale in the ordinary course of business, which may cause us to forego or defer sales of properties that otherwise would be in our best interests.

Therefore, we may not be able to vary our portfolio promptly in response to economic or other conditions or on favorable terms, which may adversely affect our cash flows, our ability to make distributions to our stockholders and the market price of our common stock.

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Properties we purchase may not appreciate or may decrease in value.

The residential real estate market may experience substantial influxes of capital from investors.  A substantial flow of capital, combined with significant competition for real estate, may result in inflated purchase prices for such assets.  To the extent we purchase real estate in such an environment, we are subject to the risk that, if the real estate market subsequently ceases to attract the same level of capital investment, or if the number of investors seeking to acquire such assets decreases, our returns will be lower and the value of our assets may not appreciate or may decrease significantly below the amount we paid for such assets.  In addition, if interest rates applicable to financing apartment properties rise, that may negatively affect the values of our properties in any period when capitalization rates for our properties, an important valuation metric, do not make corresponding adjustments.

We may incur liabilities in connection with properties we acquire.

We may acquire properties that are subject to liabilities or that have problems relating to environmental condition, state of title, physical condition or compliance with zoning laws, building codes, or other legal requirements, many of which may not be known to us at the time of acquisition.  In each case, our acquisition may be without any, or with only limited, recourse with respect to unknown liabilities or conditions.  If any liability were asserted against us relating to those properties or entities, or if any adverse condition existed with respect to the properties or entities, we might have to pay substantial sums to settle or cure it, which could adversely affect our cash flow and operating results.  While we will attempt to obtain appropriate representations and undertakings from the sellers of the properties or entities we acquire, the sellers may not have the resources to satisfy their indemnification obligations if a liability arises.

Increasing real estate taxes, utilities and insurance costs may negatively impact operating results.

Our properties may be subject to increases in tax rates, utility costs, operating expenses, insurance costs, repairs and maintenance, administrative and other expenses.  Real estate taxes, utilities costs and insurance premiums, in particular, are subject to significant increases and fluctuations, which can be widely outside of our control. A number of our markets had tax reassessments in 2018 and we expect this to continue in future years.  If our costs continue to rise, without being offset by a corresponding increase in rental rates, our results of operations could be negatively impacted, and our ability to pay our dividends and distributions and senior debt could be affected.

We may suffer losses that are not covered by insurance.

If we suffer losses that are not covered by insurance or that are in excess of our insurance coverage, we could lose invested capital and anticipated profits.  We maintain comprehensive insurance for our properties, including casualty, liability, fire, extended coverage, terrorism, earthquakes, hurricanes and rental loss customarily obtained for similar properties in amounts which our advisor determines are sufficient to cover reasonably foreseeable losses, and with policy specifications and insured limits that we believe are adequate and appropriate under the circumstances.  Material losses may occur in excess of insurance proceeds with respect to any property, and there are types of losses, generally of a catastrophic nature, such as losses due to wars, pollution, environmental matters (such as snow or ice storms, windstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, flooding or other severe weather) and mold, which are either uninsurable or not economically insurable, or may be insured subject to limitations, such as large deductibles or co-payments.  Moreover, we cannot predict whether all of the coverage that we currently maintain will be available to us in the future, or what the future costs or limitations on any coverage that is available to us will be.  We rely on third party insurance providers for our property, general liability and worker’s compensation insurance.  While there has yet to be any non-performance by these major insurance providers, should any of them experience liquidity issues or other financial distress, it could negatively impact us.  In addition, we annually assess our insurance needs based on the cost of coverage and other factors.  We may choose to self-insure a greater portion of this risks in the future or may choose to have higher deductibles or lesser policy terms.

Lawsuits or other legal proceedings could result in substantial costs.

We are subject to various lawsuits and other legal proceedings and claims that arise in the ordinary course of our business operations.  The defense or settlement of any lawsuit or claim may adversely affect our business, financial condition, or results of operations or result in increased insurance premiums.

We may be unable to secure funds for property improvements, which could reduce cash distributions to our stockholders.

When tenants do not renew their leases or otherwise vacate, we may be required to expend funds for capital improvements to the vacated apartment units in order to attract replacement tenants.  In addition, we may require substantial funds to renovate an apartment property in order to sell, upgrade or reposition it in the market.  If our reserves are insufficient to fund these improvements, we may have to obtain financing.  We cannot assure you that sufficient financing will be available or, if available, will be available on

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economically feasible terms or on terms acceptable to us.  Moreover, some reserves required by lenders may be designated for specific uses and may not be available for capital improvements to other properties.  Additional borrowing will increase our interest expense, and could result in decreased net revenues and a decreased ability to make cash distributions to our stockholders.

Short-term tenant leases expose us to the effects of declining market rent, which could adversely impact our ability to make cash distributions to our stockholders.

We expect that most of our tenant leases will be for a term of one year or less.  Because these leases generally permit the tenants to leave at the end of the lease term without any penalty, our rental revenues may be impacted by declines in market rents more quickly than if our leases were for longer terms.

The profitability of our acquisitions is uncertain.

We intend to acquire properties selectively.  Acquisition of properties entails risks that investments will fail to perform in accordance with expectations.  In undertaking acquisitions, we will incur certain risks, including the expenditure of funds on, and the devotion of management’s time to, transactions that may not come to fruition.  Additional risks inherent in acquisitions include risks that the properties will not achieve anticipated occupancy levels and that estimates of the costs of improvements to bring an acquired property up to standards established for the market position intended for that property may prove inaccurate.

Acquiring or attempting to acquire multiple properties in a single transaction may adversely affect our operations.

We have and may in the future acquire multiple properties in a single transaction.  Such portfolio acquisitions are more complex and expensive than single-property acquisitions, and the risk that a multiple-property acquisition does not close may be greater than in a single-property acquisition.  Portfolio acquisitions may also result in us owning investments in geographically dispersed markets, placing additional demands on our ability to manage the properties in the portfolio.  In addition, a seller may require that a group of properties be purchased as a package even though we may not want to purchase one or more properties in the portfolio.  In these situations, if we are unable to identify another person or entity to acquire the unwanted properties, we may be required to operate, or attempt to dispose of, these properties.  To acquire multiple properties in a single transaction, we may be required to accumulate a large amount of cash.  We expect the returns that we can earn on such cash to be less than the ultimate returns on real property, and therefore, accumulating such cash could reduce the funds available for distributions.  Any of the foregoing events may have an adverse effect on our operations.

If we sell properties by providing financing to purchasers, we will bear the risk of default by the purchaser.

If we decide to sell any of our properties, we intend to use commercially reasonable efforts to sell them for cash.  However, in some instances, we may sell our properties by providing financing to purchasers.  If we provide financing to purchasers, we will bear the risk of default by the purchaser which would reduce the value of our assets, impair our ability to make distributions to our stockholders and reduce the price of our common stock.

Our revenue and net income may vary significantly from one period to another due to investments in value-add properties and portfolio acquisitions, which could increase the variability of our cash distributions.

We may make investments in properties that have existing cash flow which are in various phases of development, redevelopment or repositioning and where we believe that, through capital expenditures, we can achieve enhanced returns (which we refer to as value-add properties), which may cause our revenues and net income to fluctuate significantly from one period to another.  Projects do not produce revenue while in development or redevelopment.  We have identified a number of properties in our portfolio as value-add properties and intend to make capital expenditures on such properties.  During any period when the number of our projects in development or redevelopment or those with significant capital requirements increases without a corresponding increase in stable revenue-producing properties, our revenues and net income will likely decrease, and we could have losses.

Moreover, value-add properties subject us to the risks of higher than expected construction costs, failure to complete projects on a timely basis, failure of the properties to perform at expected levels upon completion of development or redevelopment, and increased borrowings necessary to fund higher than expected construction or other costs related to the project.  There can be no assurance that our value-add properties will be developed or repositioned in accordance with the anticipated timing or at the anticipated cost, or that we will achieve the results we expect from these value-add properties.  Failure to achieve anticipated results could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations and ability to make distributions to stockholders.

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We may acquire properties through joint ventures, which could subject us to liabilities in excess of those contemplated or prevent us from taking actions which are in the best interests of our stockholders, which could adversely affect our trading price.

We may enter into joint ventures with affiliates and/or other third parties to acquire or improve properties.  We may also purchase properties in partnerships, co-tenancies or other co-ownership arrangements.  Such investments may involve risks not otherwise present when acquiring real estate directly, including the following:

If any of the foregoing were to occur we may be subject to liabilities in excess of those contemplated, which could adversely affect our trading price.

Risks Associated with Debt Financing

We plan to incur mortgage indebtedness and other borrowings and are not limited in the amount or percentage of indebtedness that we may incur, which may increase our business risks.

We intend to acquire properties subject to existing financing or by borrowing new funds.  In addition, we intend to incur additional mortgage debt by obtaining loans secured by some, or all, of our real properties to obtain funds to acquire additional real properties and/or make capital improvements to properties.  We may also borrow funds, if necessary, to satisfy the requirement that we generally distribute to stockholders as dividends at least 90% of our annual REIT taxable income (computed without regard to dividends paid and excluding net capital gain), or otherwise as is necessary or advisable to assure that we maintain our qualification as a REIT for U.S. federal income tax purposes.

Our charter and bylaws do not limit the amount or percentage of indebtedness that we may incur.  We are subject to risks normally associated with debt financing, including the risk that our cash flows will be insufficient to meet required payments of principal and interest.  There can be no assurance that we will be able to refinance any maturing indebtedness, that such refinancing would be on terms as favorable as the terms of the maturing indebtedness or that we will be able to otherwise obtain funds by selling assets or raising equity to make required payments on maturing indebtedness.

In particular, loans obtained to fund property acquisitions will generally be secured by mortgages or deeds in trust on such properties.  If we are unable to make our debt service payments as required, a lender could foreclose on the property or properties securing its debt.

In addition, for U.S. federal income tax purposes, a foreclosure of any of our properties would be treated as a sale of the property for a purchase price equal to the outstanding balance of the debt secured by the mortgage.  If the outstanding balance of the debt secured by the mortgage exceeds our tax basis in the property, we would recognize taxable income on foreclosure, but would not receive any cash proceeds.  We may, in some circumstances, give a guaranty on behalf of an entity that owns one or more of our properties.  In these cases, we will be responsible to the lender for satisfaction of the debt if it is not paid by such entity.  If any mortgages contain cross-collateralization or cross-default provisions, there is a risk that we could lose part or all of our investment in

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multiple properties.  Each of these events could in turn cause the value of our common stock and distributions payable to stockholders to be reduced.

Any mortgage debt which we place on properties may prohibit prepayment and/or impose a prepayment penalty upon the sale of a mortgaged property.  If a lender invokes these prohibitions or penalties upon the sale of a property or prepayment of a mortgage on a property, the cost to us to sell the property could increase substantially.  This could decrease the proceeds from a sale or refinancing or make the sale or refinancing impractical, which may lead to a reduction in our income, reduce our cash flows and adversely impact our ability to make distributions to stockholders.

We may also finance our property acquisitions using interest-only mortgage indebtedness.  During the interest-only period, the amount of each scheduled payment will be less than that of a traditional amortizing mortgage loan.  The principal balance of the mortgage loan will not be reduced (except in the case of prepayments) because there are no scheduled monthly payments of principal during this period.  After the interest-only period, we will be required either to make scheduled payments of amortized principal and interest or to make a lump-sum or “balloon” payment at maturity.  These required principal or balloon payments will increase the amount of our scheduled payments and may increase our risk of default under the related mortgage loan.  If the mortgage loan has an adjustable interest rate, the amount of our scheduled payments also may increase at a time of rising interest rates.  Increased payments and substantial principal or balloon maturity payments will reduce the funds available for distribution to our stockholders because cash otherwise available for distribution will be required to pay principal and interest associated with these mortgage loans.

Lenders may require us to enter into restrictive covenants relating to our operations, which could limit our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.

In providing financing to us, a lender may impose restrictions on us that would affect our ability to incur additional debt, make certain investments, reduce liquidity below certain levels, make distributions to our stockholders and otherwise affect our distribution and operating policies.  Our KeyBank credit facility and term loans include restrictions and requirements relating to the incurrence of debt, permitted investments, maximum level of distributions, maintenance of insurance, mergers and sales of assets and transactions with affiliates.  We expect that any other loan agreements we enter into will contain similar covenants and may also impose other restrictions and limitations.  Any such covenants, restrictions or limitations may limit our ability to make distributions to you and could make it difficult for us to satisfy the requirements necessary to maintain our qualification as a REIT for U.S. federal income tax purposes.

Lenders may be able to recover against our other properties under our mortgage loans.

In financing our property acquisitions, we may seek to obtain secured nonrecourse loans.  However, only recourse financing may be available, in which event, in addition to the property securing the loan, the lender would have the ability to look to our other assets for satisfaction of the debt if the proceeds from the sale or other disposition of the property securing the loan are insufficient to fully repay it.  Also, in order to facilitate the sale of a property, we may allow the buyer to purchase the property subject to an existing loan whereby we remain responsible for certain liabilities associated with the debt.

If we are required to make payments under any “bad boy” carve-out guaranties that we may provide in connection with certain mortgages and related loans, our business and financial results could be materially adversely affected.

In obtaining certain nonrecourse loans, we may provide standard carve-out guaranties.  These guaranties are only applicable if and when the borrower directly, or indirectly through agreement with an affiliate, joint venture partner or other third party, voluntarily files a bankruptcy or similar liquidation or reorganization action or takes other actions that are fraudulent or improper (commonly referred to as “bad boy” guaranties).  Although we believe that “bad boy” carve-out guaranties are not guaranties of payment in the event of foreclosure or other actions of the foreclosing lender that are beyond the borrower’s control, some lenders in the real estate industry have recently sought to make claims for payment under such guaranties.  In the event such a claim were made against us under a “bad boy” carve-out guaranty following foreclosure on mortgages or related loan, and such claim were successful, our business and financial results could be materially adversely affected.

Our variable rate indebtedness subjects us to interest rate risk, and interest rate hedges that we may obtain may be costly and ineffective.

As of December 31, 2018, $405.7 million of our $991.4 million of total outstanding indebtedness bore interest at variable rates.  If interest rates were to increase, our debt service obligations on the variable rate indebtedness would increase even though the amount borrowed would remain the same, and our net income and cash flows would correspondingly decrease. In order to partially mitigate our exposure to increases in interest rates, we have entered into interest rate swaps and collars on $400.0 million of our variable rate debt, which involve the exchange of variable for fixed rate interest payments. Taking into account our current interest

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rate swap and collar agreements, a 100 basis point increase in interest rates would result in a $0.1 million increase in annual interest expense. See Item 7., “Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Liquidity and Capital Resources – Interest Rate Risk and Sensitivity.” To the extent that we use derivative financial instruments to hedge our exposure to variable rate indebtedness, we may be exposed to credit, basis and legal enforceability risks.  Derivative financial instruments may include interest rate swap contracts, interest rate cap or floor contracts, futures or forward contracts, options or repurchase agreements.  In this context, credit risk is the failure of the counterparty to perform under the terms of the derivative contract.  If the fair value of a derivative contract is positive, the counterparty owes us, which creates credit risk for us.  Basis risk occurs when the index upon which the contract is based is more or less variable than the index upon which the hedged asset or liability is based, thereby making the hedge less effective.  Finally, legal enforceability risks encompass general contractual risks, including the risk that the counterparty will breach the terms of, or fail to perform its obligations under, the derivative contract.  Moreover, hedging strategies involve transaction and other costs.  If we are unable to manage these risks and costs effectively, our results of operations, financial condition and ability to make distributions may be adversely affected.

Some of our outstanding mortgage indebtedness contains, and we may in the future acquire or finance properties with, lock-out provisions, which may prohibit us from selling a property, or may require us to maintain specified debt levels for a period of years on some properties.

A lock-out provision is a provision that prohibits the prepayment of a loan during a specified period of time. Lock-out provisions may include terms that provide strong financial disincentives for borrowers to prepay their outstanding loan balance and exist in order to protect the yield expectations of lenders.  Some of our outstanding mortgage indebtedness is, and we expect that many of our properties will be, subject to lock-out provisions.  Lock-out provisions could materially restrict us from selling or otherwise disposing of or refinancing properties when we may desire to do so.  Lock-out provisions may prohibit us from reducing the outstanding indebtedness with respect to any properties, refinancing such indebtedness on a non-recourse basis at maturity, or increasing the amount of indebtedness with respect to such properties.  Lock-out provisions could impair our ability to take other actions during the lock-out period that could be in the best interests of our stockholders and, therefore, may have an adverse impact on the value of our shares relative to the value that would result if the lock-out provisions did not exist.  In particular, lock-out provisions could preclude us from participating in major transactions that could result in a disposition of our assets or a change in control even though that disposition or change in control might be in the best interests of our stockholders.

Complying with REIT requirements may limit our ability to hedge risk effectively.

The REIT provisions of the Code may limit our ability to hedge the risks inherent to our operations.  Any income or gain derived by us from transactions that hedge certain risks, such as the risk of changes in interest rates, will not be treated as gross income for purposes of either the 75% or the 95% Gross Income Test, as defined in Exhibit 99.1 “Material U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations” of this report, provided specific requirements are met.  Such requirements include that the hedging transaction be properly identified within prescribed time periods and that the transaction either (i) hedges risks associated with indebtedness issued by us that is incurred to acquire or carry real estate assets or (ii) manages the risks of currency fluctuations with respect to income or gain that qualifies under the 75% or 95% Gross Income Test (or assets that generate such income).  To the extent that we do not properly identify such transactions as hedges, hedge with other types of financial instruments, or hedge other types of indebtedness, the income from those transactions will not be treated as qualifying income for purposes of the 75% and 95% Gross Income Tests.  As a result of these rules, we may have to limit the use of hedging techniques that might otherwise be advantageous, which could result in greater risks associated with interest rate or other changes than we would otherwise incur.

There is refinancing risk associated with our debt.

We expect that we will incur additional indebtedness in the future. Certain of our outstanding debt contains, and we may in the future acquire or finance properties with debt containing, limited or no principal amortization, which would require that the principal be repaid at the maturity of the loan in a so-called “balloon payment.” As of December 31, 2018, the financing arrangements of our outstanding indebtedness could require us to make lump-sum or “balloon” payments of approximately $800.6 million at maturity dates that range from 2021 to 2026.  At the maturity of these loans, assuming we do not have sufficient funds to repay the debt, we will need to refinance the debt.  If the credit environment is constrained at the time of our debt maturities, we would have a very difficult time refinancing debt.  In addition, for certain loans, we locked in our fixed-rate debt at a point in time when we were able to obtain favorable interest rate, principal payments and other terms.  When we refinance our debt, prevailing interest rates and other factors may result in us paying a greater amount of debt service, which will adversely affect our cash flow and our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.  If we are unable to refinance our debt on acceptable terms, we may be forced to choose from a number of unfavorable options, including agreeing to otherwise unfavorable financing terms on one or more of our unencumbered assets, selling one or more properties at disadvantageous terms, including unattractive prices, or defaulting on the mortgage and permitting the lender to foreclose.  Any one of these options could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and our ability to make distributions to our stockholders.

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High mortgage rates and/or unavailability of mortgage debt may make it difficult for us to finance or refinance properties, which could reduce the number of properties we can acquire, our net income and the amount of cash distributions we can make.

If mortgage debt is unavailable at reasonable rates, we may not be able to finance the purchase of properties. If we place mortgage debt on properties, we may be unable to refinance the properties when the loans become due, or to refinance on favorable terms. If interest rates are higher when we refinance our properties, our income could be reduced. If any of these events occur, our cash flow could be reduced. This, in turn, could reduce cash available for distribution to our securityholders and may hinder our ability to raise more capital by issuing more stock or by borrowing more money.

Some of our mortgage loans may have “due on sale” provisions, which may impact the manner in which we acquire, sell and/or finance our properties.

In purchasing properties subject to financing, we may obtain financing with “due-on-sale” and/or “due-on-encumbrance” clauses.  Due-on-sale clauses in mortgages allow a mortgage lender to demand full repayment of the mortgage loan if the borrower sells the mortgaged property.  Similarly, due-on-encumbrance clauses allow a mortgage lender to demand full repayment if the borrower uses the real estate securing the mortgage loan as security for another loan.  In such event, we may be required to sell our properties on an all-cash basis, to acquire new financing in connection with the sale, or to provide seller financing which may make it more difficult to sell the property or reduce the selling price.

A change in the United States government policy with regard to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac could impact our financial condition.

Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac are a major source of financing for the multifamily residential real estate sector.  Many multifamily companies depend heavily on Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to finance growth by purchasing or guarantying apartment loans and to refinance outstanding indebtedness as it matures.

If new U.S. government regulations (i) heighten Fannie Mae’s and Freddie Mac’s underwriting standards, (ii) adversely affect interest rates and (iii) continue to reduce the amount of capital they can make available to the multifamily sector, it could reduce or remove entirely a vital resource for multifamily financing.  Any potential reduction in loans, guarantees and credit-enhancement arrangements from Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac could jeopardize the effectiveness of the multifamily sector’s available financing and decrease the amount of available liquidity and credit that could be used to acquire and diversify our portfolio of multifamily assets, as well as dispose of our multifamily assets upon our liquidation, and our ability to refinance our existing mortgage obligations as they come due and obtain additional long-term financing for the acquisition of additional multifamily apartment communities on favorable terms or at all.  In addition, the members of the current presidential administration have announced that restructuring and privatizing Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac is a priority of the current administration, and there is uncertainty regarding the impact of this action on us and buyers of our properties.

Changes in the method pursuant to which the LIBOR rates are determined and potential phasing out of LIBOR after 2021 may affect our financial results.

The chief executive of the United Kingdom Financial Conduct Authority (“FCA”), which regulates LIBOR, has recently announced that the FCA intends to stop compelling banks to submit rates for the calculation of LIBOR after 2021.  It is not possible to predict the effect of these changes, other reforms or the establishment of alternative reference rates in the United Kingdom or elsewhere.  Furthermore, in the United States, efforts to identify a set of alternative U.S. dollar reference interest rates include proposals by the Alternative Reference Rates Committee of the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.  On August 24, 2017, the Federal Reserve Board requested public comment on a proposal by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, in cooperation with the Office of Financial Research, to produce three new reference rates intended to serve as alternatives to LIBOR.  These alternative rates are based on overnight repurchase agreement transactions secured by U.S. Treasury Securities and the Federal Reserve Bank began publishing these alternative rates in 2018.

Any changes announced by the FCA, other regulators or any other successor governance or oversight body, or future changes adopted by such body, in the method pursuant to which the LIBOR rates are determined may result in a sudden or prolonged increase or decrease in the reported LIBOR rates.  If that were to occur, the level of interest payments we incur may change.  In addition, although certain of our LIBOR based obligations provide for alternative methods of calculating the interest rate payable on certain of our obligations if LIBOR is not reported, which include requesting certain rates from major reference banks in London or New York, or alternatively using LIBOR for the immediately preceding interest period or using the initial interest rate, as applicable, uncertainty as to the extent and manner of future changes may result in interest rates and/or payments that are higher than, lower than or that do not otherwise correlate over time with the interest rates and/or payments that would have been made on our obligations if LIBOR rate was available in its current form.

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Compliance with Laws

We are subject to significant regulations, which could adversely affect our results of operations through increased costs and/or an inability to pursue business opportunities.

Local zoning and use laws, environmental statutes and other governmental requirements may restrict or increase the costs of our development, expansion, renovation and reconstruction activities and thus may prevent or delay us from taking advantage of business opportunities.  Failure to comply with these requirements could result in the imposition of fines, awards to private litigants of damages against us, substantial litigation costs and substantial costs of remediation or compliance.  In addition, we cannot predict what requirements may be enacted in the future or that such requirements will not increase our costs of regulatory compliance or prohibit us from pursuing business opportunities that could be profitable to us, which could adversely affect our results of operations.

The costs of compliance with environmental laws and regulations may adversely affect our net income and the cash available for any distributions.

All real property and the operations conducted on real property are subject to federal, state and local laws and regulations relating to environmental protection and human health and safety.  Examples of federal laws include:  the National Environmental Policy Act, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, the Solid Waste Disposal Act, as amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Federal Clean Air Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act and the Hazard Communication Act.  These laws and regulations generally govern wastewater discharges, air emissions, the operation and removal of underground and aboveground storage tanks, the use, storage, treatment, transportation and disposal of solid and hazardous materials, and the remediation of contamination associated with disposals.  Some of these laws and regulations may impose joint and several liability on tenants, owners or operators for the costs of investigation or remediation of contaminated properties, regardless of fault or the legality of the original disposal.

Under various federal, state and local environmental laws, ordinances and regulations, a current or previous owner or operator of real property may be liable for the cost of removal or remediation of hazardous or toxic substances on, under or in such property.  The costs of removal or remediation could be substantial.  These laws often impose liability whether or not the owner or operator knew of, or was responsible for, the presence of the hazardous or toxic substances.  In addition, the presence of these substances, or the failure to properly remediate these substances, may adversely affect our ability to sell or rent the property or to use the property as collateral for future borrowing.

Environmental laws also may impose restrictions on the manner in which property may be used or businesses may be operated, and these restrictions may require substantial expenditures.  Environmental laws provide for sanctions in the event of noncompliance and may be enforced by governmental agencies or, in certain circumstances, by private parties.  Certain environmental laws and common law principles govern the presence, maintenance, removal and disposal of certain building materials, including asbestos and lead-based paint.  Such hazardous substances could be released into the air and third parties may seek recovery from owners or operators of real properties for personal injury or property damage associated with exposure to released hazardous substances.

In addition, if any property in our portfolio is not properly connected to a water or sewer system, or if the integrity of such systems is breached, microbial matter or other contamination can develop.  If this were to occur, we could incur significant remedial costs and we may also be subject to private damage claims and awards, which could be material.  If we become subject to claims in this regard, it could materially and adversely affect us.

Property values may also be affected by the proximity of such properties to electric transmission lines.  Electric transmission lines are one of many sources of electro-magnetic fields (“EMFs”), to which people may be exposed.  Research completed regarding potential health concerns associated with exposure to EMFs has produced inconclusive results.  Notwithstanding the lack of conclusive scientific evidence, some states now regulate the strength of electric and magnetic fields emanating from electric transmission lines and other states have required transmission facilities to measure for levels of EMFs.  On occasion, lawsuits have been filed (primarily against electric utilities) that allege personal injuries from exposure to transmission lines and EMFs, as well as from fear of adverse health effects due to such exposure.  This fear of adverse health effects from transmission lines may be considered both when property values are determined to obtain financing and in condemnation proceedings.  We may not, in certain circumstances, search for electric transmission lines near our properties, but are aware of the potential exposure to damage claims by persons exposed to EMFs.

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The cost of defending against such claims of liability, of compliance with environmental regulatory requirements, of remediating any contaminated property, or of paying personal injury claims could materially adversely affect our business, assets or results of operations and, consequently, amounts available for distribution to our stockholders.

We cannot provide any assurance properties which we acquire will not have any material environmental conditions, liabilities or compliance concerns.  Accordingly, we have no way of determining at this time the magnitude of any potential liability to which we may be subject arising out of environmental conditions or violations with respect to the properties we own.

Costs associated with addressing indoor air quality issues, moisture infiltration and resulting mold remediation may be costly.

As a general matter, concern about indoor exposure to mold or other air contaminants has been increasing as such exposure has been alleged to have a variety of adverse effects on health.  As a result, there have been a number of lawsuits in our industry against owners and managers of apartment communities relating to indoor air quality, moisture infiltration and resulting mold.  Some of our properties may contain microbial matter such as mold and mildew.  The terms of our property and general liability policies generally exclude certain mold-related claims.  Should an uninsured loss arise against us, we would be required to use our funds to resolve the issue, including litigation costs.  We can offer no assurance that liabilities resulting from indoor air quality, moisture infiltration and the presence of or exposure to mold will not have a future impact on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Our costs associated with and the risk of failing to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act may affect our net income.

We generally expect that our properties will be subject to the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, as amended (the “Disabilities Act”).  Under the Disabilities Act, all places of public accommodation are required to comply with federal requirements related to access and use by disabled persons.  The Disabilities Act has separate compliance requirements for “public accommodations” and “commercial facilities” that generally require that buildings and services be made accessible and available to people with disabilities.  The Disabilities Act does not, however, consider residential properties, such as apartment properties, to be public accommodations or commercial facilities, except to the extent portions of such facilities, such as a leasing office, are open to the public.  The Disabilities Act’s requirements could require removal of access barriers and could result in the imposition of injunctive relief, monetary penalties or, in some cases, an award of damages.  We will attempt to acquire properties that comply with the Disabilities Act or place the burden on the seller or a third party to ensure compliance with such laws.  However, we cannot assure you that we will be able to acquire properties or allocate responsibilities in this manner.  If we cannot, costs in complying with these laws may adversely affect our results of operations financial condition and ability to make distributions to our stockholders.

We must comply with the Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988 (the “FHAA”), and failure to comply could result in substantial costs.

We must comply with the FHAA, which requires that apartment properties first occupied after March 13, 1991 be accessible to handicapped residents and visitors.  As with the Disabilities Act, compliance with the FHAA could require removal of structural barriers to handicapped access in a community, including the interiors of apartment units covered under the FHAA.  Recently there has been heightened scrutiny of apartment housing properties for compliance with the requirements of the FHAA and the Disabilities Act and an increasing number of substantial enforcement actions and private lawsuits have been brought against apartment communities to ensure compliance with these requirements.  Noncompliance with the FHAA could result in the imposition of fines, awards of damages to private litigants, payment of attorneys’ fees and other costs to plaintiffs, substantial litigation costs and substantial costs of remediation.

United States Federal Income Tax Risks

Legislative or regulatory action could adversely affect the returns to our investors.

Legislative, regulatory or administrative changes could be enacted or promulgated at any time, either prospectively or with retroactive effect, and may adversely affect us and/or our stockholders.

On December 22, 2017, a bill informally known as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “TCJA”) was signed into law.  The TCJA makes significant changes to the U.S. federal income tax rules for taxation of individuals and corporations, generally effective for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017.  In addition to reducing corporate and individual tax rates, the TCJA eliminates or restricts various deductions.  One such deduction limitation is a general limitation of the deduction for net business interest expense in excess of 30% of a business’s “adjusted taxable income,” except for taxpayers that engage in certain real estate businesses  and elect

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out of this rule (provided that such electing taxpayers must use an alternative depreciation system with longer depreciation periods).  Most of the changes applicable to individuals are temporary and apply only to taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017 and before January 1, 2026.  The TCJA makes numerous large and small changes to the tax rules that do not affect the REIT qualification rules directly but may otherwise affect us or our stockholders.

While the changes in the TCJA generally appear to be favorable with respect to REITs and their stockholders, the extensive changes to non-REIT provisions in the Code may have unanticipated effects on us or our stockholders.  Moreover, Congressional leaders have recognized that the process of adopting extensive tax legislation in a short amount of time without hearings and substantial time for review is likely to have led to drafting errors, issues needing clarification and unintended consequences that will have to be revisited in subsequent tax legislation.  At this point, although certain additional guidance has been provided by Treasury and the IRS, it is not clear if or when Congress will address these issues or when the IRS will issue additional administrative guidance on the changes made in the TCJA.

We urge you to consult with your own tax advisor with respect to the status of the TCJA and other legislative, regulatory or administrative developments and proposals and their potential effect on an investment in shares of our common stock.

Dividends paid by REITs do not qualify for the reduced tax rates provided under current law.

Dividends paid by REITs are generally not eligible for the reduced 15% maximum tax rate for dividends paid to individuals (20% for those with taxable income above certain thresholds that are adjusted annually under current law).  The more favorable rates applicable to regular corporate dividends could cause stockholders who are individuals to perceive investments in REITs to be relatively less attractive than investments in the stock of non-REIT corporations that pay dividends to which more favorable rates apply, which could reduce the value of the stocks of REITs.  However, under the TCJA regular dividends from REITs are treated as income from a pass-through entity and are eligible for a 20% deduction.  As a result, our regular dividends will be taxed at 80% of an individual’s marginal tax rate.  The current maximum rate is 37% resulting in a maximum tax rate of 29.6% on our dividends.  Dividends from REITs as well as regular corporate dividends will also be subject to a 3.8% Medicare surtax for taxpayers with modified adjusted gross income above $200,000 (if single) or $250,000 (if married and filing jointly).

We may decide to borrow funds to satisfy our REIT minimum distribution requirements, which could adversely affect our overall financial performance.

We may decide to borrow funds in order to meet the REIT minimum distribution requirements even if our management believes that the then prevailing market conditions generally are not favorable for such borrowings or that such borrowings would not be advisable in the absence of such tax considerations.  If we borrow money to meet the REIT minimum distribution requirements or for other working capital needs, our expenses will increase, our net income will be reduced by the amount of interest we pay on the money we borrow and we will be obligated to repay the money we borrow from future earnings or by selling assets, any or all of which may decrease future distributions to stockholders.

To maintain our qualification as a REIT, we may be forced to forego otherwise attractive opportunities, which may delay or hinder our ability to meet our investment objectives and adversely affect the trading price of our common stock.

To maintain our qualification as a REIT, we must satisfy certain tests on an ongoing basis concerning, among other things, the sources of our income, nature of our assets and the amounts we distribute to our stockholders.  We may be required to make distributions to stockholders at times when it would be more advantageous to reinvest cash in our business or when we do not have funds readily available for distribution.  Compliance with the REIT qualification requirements may hinder our ability to operate solely on the basis of maximizing profits and adversely affect the trading price of our common stock.

If we fail to maintain our qualification as a REIT, we will be subject to tax on our income, and the amount of distributions we make to our stockholders will be less.

We intend to maintain our qualification as a REIT under the Code.  A REIT generally is not taxed at the corporate level on income and gains that it distributes to its stockholders on a timely basis.  We do not intend to request a ruling from the Internal Revenue Service (the “IRS”), as to our REIT status.  Qualification as a REIT involves the application of highly technical and complex rules for which there are only limited judicial or administrative interpretations.  The determination of various factual matters and circumstances not entirely within our control may affect our ability to continue to qualify as a REIT.  In addition, new legislation, regulations, administrative interpretations or court decisions could significantly change the tax laws with respect to qualification as a REIT or the U.S. federal income tax consequences of such qualification, including changes with retroactive effect.

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If we fail to qualify as a REIT in any taxable year:

Although our organization and current and proposed method of operation is intended to enable us to maintain our qualification to be taxed as a REIT, it is possible that future economic, market, legal, tax or other considerations may cause our board of directors to revoke our REIT election.  Even if we maintain our qualification to be taxed as a REIT, we expect to incur some taxes, such as state and local taxes, taxes imposed on certain subsidiaries and potential U.S. federal excise taxes.

We encourage you to read Exhibit 99.1-”Material U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations” to this report for further discussion of the tax issues related to an investment in us.

The ability of our Board of Directors to revoke our REIT election without stockholder approval may cause adverse consequences to our stockholders.

Our Charter provides that our Board of Directors may revoke or otherwise terminate our REIT election, without the approval of our stockholders, if it determines that it is no longer in our best interest to continue to maintain our qualification as a REIT.  If we cease to maintain our qualification as a REIT, we would become subject to U.S. federal income tax on our taxable income without the benefit of the dividends paid deduction and would no longer be required to distribute most of our taxable income to our stockholders, which may have adverse consequences on the total return to our stockholders.

To maintain our qualification as a REIT, we must meet annual distribution requirements, which may result in our distributing amounts that may otherwise be used for our operations.

To obtain the favorable tax treatment accorded to REITs, we generally are required each year to distribute to our stockholders at least 90% of our REIT taxable income (excluding net capital gain), determined without regard to the deduction for distributions paid.  We are subject to U.S. federal income tax on our undistributed taxable income and net capital gain and to a 4% nondeductible excise tax on any amount by which distributions we pay with respect to any calendar year are less than the sum of (i) 85% of our ordinary income, (ii) 95% of our capital gain net income and (iii) 100% of our undistributed income from prior years.  These requirements could cause us to distribute amounts that otherwise would be spent on investments in real estate assets, and it is possible that we might be required to borrow funds, possibly at unfavorable rates, or sell assets to fund these distributions.  Although we intend to make distributions sufficient to meet the annual distribution requirements and to avoid U.S. federal income and excise taxes on our earnings, it is possible that we might not always be able to do so.

Complying with REIT requirements may cause us to forgo otherwise attractive opportunities.

To maintain our qualification as a REIT, we must continually satisfy various tests regarding sources of income, nature and diversification of assets, amounts distributed to stockholders and the ownership of shares of our capital stock.  In order to satisfy these tests, we may be required to forgo investments that might otherwise be made.  Accordingly, compliance with the REIT requirements may hinder our investment performance.

In particular, at least 75% of our total assets at the end of each calendar quarter must consist of real estate assets, government securities, and cash or cash items.  For this purpose, “real estate assets” generally include interests in real property, such as land, buildings, leasehold interests in real property, stock of other entities that qualify as REITs, interests in mortgage loans secured by real property, investments in stock or debt instruments during the one-year period following the receipt of new capital and regular or residual interests in a real estate mortgage investment conduit.  In addition, the amount of securities of a single issuer that we hold, other than securities qualifying under the 75% asset test and certain other securities, must generally not exceed either 5% of the value of our gross assets or 10% of the vote or value of such issuer’s outstanding securities.

A REIT’s net income from prohibited transactions is subject to a 100% penalty tax.  In general, prohibited transactions are sales or other dispositions of property, other than foreclosure property, held in inventory or primarily for sale to customers in the ordinary course of business.  It may be possible to reduce the impact of the prohibited transaction tax and the holding of assets not

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qualifying as real estate assets for purposes of the REIT asset tests by conducting certain activities, or holding non-qualifying REIT assets through a taxable REIT subsidiary (a “TRS”), subject to certain limitations as described below.  To the extent that we engage in such activities through a TRS, the income associated with such activities will be subject to full U.S. federal corporate income tax.

Certain of our business activities are potentially subject to the prohibited transaction tax, which could reduce the return on any investment in our securities.

Our ability to dispose of property is restricted to a substantial extent as a result of our REIT status.  Under applicable provisions of the Code regarding prohibited transactions by REITs, we will be subject to a 100% tax on any gain recognized on the sale or other disposition of any property (other than foreclosure property) that we own, directly or through any subsidiary entity, including IROP, but excluding a TRS, that is deemed to be inventory or property held primarily for sale to customers in the ordinary course of trade or business.  Whether property is inventory or otherwise held primarily for sale to customers in the ordinary course of a trade or business depends on the particular facts and circumstances surrounding each property.  No assurance can be given that any particular property we own, directly or through any subsidiary entity, including IROP, but excluding a “TRS”, will not be treated as inventory or property held primarily for sale to customers in the ordinary course of a trade or business.

The use of TRSs would increase our overall tax liability.

Some of our assets may need to be owned or sold, or some of our operations may need to be conducted by TRSs.  We do not currently have significant operations through a TRS but may in the future.  A TRS will be subject to U.S. federal and state income tax on its taxable income.  The after-tax net income of a TRS would be available for distribution to us.  Further, we will incur a 100% excise tax on transactions with a TRS that are not conducted on an arm’s length basis.  For example, to the extent that the rent paid by a TRS exceeds an arm’s length rental amount, such amount is potentially subject to the excise tax.  We intend that all transactions between us and any TRS we form will be conducted on an arm’s length basis, and, therefore, any amounts paid by any TRS we form to us will not be subject to the excise tax.  However, no assurance can be given that no excise tax would arise from such transactions.

If our operating partnership, IROP, is not treated as a partnership or disregarded entity for U.S. federal income tax purposes, its income may be subject to taxation.

We intend to maintain the status of IROP as a partnership or disregarded entity for U.S. federal income tax purposes.  However, if the IRS were to successfully challenge the status of IROP as a partnership or disregarded entity for such purposes, it would be taxable as a corporation.  In such event, this would reduce the amount of distributions that IROP could make to us.  This would also result in our losing REIT status, and becoming subject to a corporate level tax on our own income.  This would substantially reduce our cash available to pay distributions and the yield on any investment in our securities.  In addition, if any of the partnerships or limited liability companies through which IROP owns its properties, in whole or in part, loses its characterization as a partnership for U.S. federal income tax purposes, it would be subject to taxation as a corporation, thereby reducing distributions to IROP.  Such a recharacterization of an underlying property owner could also threaten our ability to maintain REIT status.

Distributions to tax-exempt investors may be classified as unrelated business taxable income, or UBTI, and tax-exempt investors would be required to pay tax on such income and to file income tax returns.

Neither ordinary nor capital gain distributions with respect to our common stock nor gain from the sale of stock should generally constitute UBTI to a tax-exempt investor.  However, there are certain exceptions to this rule, including:

We encourage you to consult your own tax advisor to determine the tax consequences applicable to you if you are a tax-exempt investor.

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Distributions to foreign investors may be treated as an ordinary income distribution to the extent that it is made out of current or accumulated earnings and profits.

In general, foreign investors will be subject to regular U.S. federal income tax with respect to their investment in our stock if the income derived therefrom is “effectively connected” with the foreign investor’s conduct of a trade or business in the United States.  A distribution to a foreign investor that is not attributable to gain realized by us from the sale or exchange of a “U.S. real property interest” within the meaning of the Foreign Investment in Real Property Tax Act of 1980, as amended “FIRPTA” will be treated as an ordinary income distribution to the extent that it is made out of current or accumulated earnings and profits (as determined for U.S. federal income tax purposes).  Generally, any ordinary income distribution will be subject to a U.S. withholding tax equal to 30% of the gross amount of the distribution, unless this tax is reduced by the provisions of an applicable treaty.

Foreign investors may be subject to FIRPTA tax upon the sale of their shares of our stock.

A foreign investor disposing of a U.S. real property interest, including shares of stock of a U.S. corporation whose assets consist principally of U.S. real property interests, is generally subject to FIRPTA tax on the gain recognized on the disposition.  Such FIRPTA tax does not apply, however, to the disposition of stock in a REIT if the REIT is “domestically controlled.” A REIT is “domestically controlled” if less than 50% of the REIT’s stock, by value, has been owned directly or indirectly by persons who are not U.S. persons during a continuous five-year period ending on the date of disposition or, if shorter, during the entire period of the REIT’s existence.  While we intend to qualify as “domestically controlled,” we cannot assure you that we will.  If we were to fail to so qualify, gain realized by foreign investors on a sale of shares of our stock would be subject to FIRPTA tax, unless the shares of our stock were traded on an established securities market and the foreign investor did not at any time during a specified testing period directly or indirectly own more than 10% of the value of our outstanding common stock.

Foreign investors may be subject to FIRPTA tax upon a capital gain dividend.

A foreign investor may be subject to FIRPTA tax upon the payment of any capital gain dividend by us if such dividend is attributable to gain from sales or exchanges of U.S. real property interests.

We encourage you to consult your own tax advisor to determine the tax consequences applicable to you if you are a foreign investor.

We may make distributions consisting of both stock and cash, in which case stockholders may be required to pay income taxes in excess of the cash distributions they receive.

We may make distributions that are paid in cash and stock at the election of each stockholder and may distribute other forms of taxable stock dividends.  Taxable stockholders receiving such distributions will be required to include the full amount of the distributions as ordinary income to the extent of our current and accumulated earnings and profits for U.S. federal income tax purposes.  As a result, stockholders may be required to pay income taxes with respect to such distributions in excess of the cash received.  If a stockholder sells the stock that it receives in order to pay this tax, the sales proceeds may be less than the amount included in income with respect to the distribution, depending on the market price of our stock at the time of the sale.  Furthermore, in the case of certain non-U.S. stockholders, we may be required to withhold federal income tax with respect to taxable dividends, including taxable dividends that are paid in stock.  In addition, if a significant number of our stockholders decide to sell their shares in order to pay taxes owed with respect to taxable stock dividends, it may put downward pressure on the trading price of our stock.

If our operating partnership, IROP, were classified as a “publicly traded partnership” taxable as a corporation for U.S. federal income tax purposes under the Code, we would cease to maintain our qualification as a REIT and would suffer other adverse tax consequences.

We intend for IROP to be treated as a partnership for U.S. federal income tax purposes.  If the IRS were to successfully challenge the status of IROP as a partnership, however, IROP generally would be taxable as a corporation.  In such event, we likely would fail to maintain our status as a REIT for U.S. federal income tax purposes, and the resulting corporate income tax burden would reduce the amount of distributions that IROP could make to us.  This would substantially reduce the cash available to pay distributions to our stockholders.  In addition, if any of the partnerships or limited liability companies through which the operating partnership owns its properties, in whole or in part, loses its characterization as a partnership and is not otherwise disregarded for U.S. federal income tax purposes, it would be subject to taxation as a corporation, thereby reducing distributions to the operating partnership.  Such a recharacterization of an underlying property owner could also threaten our ability to maintain our REIT qualification.

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Our stockholders may be restricted from acquiring or transferring certain amounts of our common stock.

Certain provisions of the Code and the stock ownership limits in our Charter may inhibit market activity in our capital stock and restrict our business combination opportunities.  In order to maintain our qualification as a REIT, five or fewer individuals, as defined in the Code, may not own, beneficially or constructively, more than 50% in value of our issued and outstanding stock at any time during the last half of a taxable year.  Attribution rules in the Code determine if any individual or entity beneficially or constructively owns our capital stock under this requirement.  Additionally, at least 100 persons must beneficially own our capital stock during at least 335 days of a taxable year.  To help insure that we meet these tests, our Charter restricts the acquisition and ownership of shares of our stock.

Our Charter, with certain exceptions, authorizes our Board of Directors to take such actions as are necessary and desirable to preserve our qualification as a REIT.  Unless exempted by our Board of Directors, our Charter prohibits any person from beneficially or constructively owning more than 9.8% in value or number of shares, whichever is more restrictive, of the outstanding shares of our common stock or capital stock.  Our Board of Directors may not grant an exemption from these restrictions to any proposed transferee whose ownership in excess of ownership limits would result in our failing to maintain our qualification as a REIT.  These restrictions on transferability and ownership will not apply, however, if our Board of Directors determines that it is no longer in our best interest to continue to maintain our qualification as a REIT.

Risks Related to Our Organization and Structure

The Maryland General Corporation Law prohibits certain business combinations, which may make it more difficult for us to be acquired.

Under the Maryland General Corporation Law, “business combinations” between a Maryland corporation and an “interested stockholder” or an affiliate of an interested stockholder are prohibited for five years after the most recent date on which the interested stockholder became an interested stockholder.  These business combinations include a merger, consolidation, share exchange, or in circumstances specified in the statute, an asset transfer or issuance or reclassification of equity securities.  An interested stockholder is defined as (i) any person who beneficially owns 10% or more of the voting power of the then outstanding voting stock of the corporation; or (ii) an affiliate or associate of the corporation who, at any time within the two-year period prior to the date in question, was the beneficial owner of 10% or more of the voting power of the then outstanding stock of the corporation.

A person is not an interested stockholder under the statute if the board of directors approved in advance the transaction by which the person otherwise would have become an interested stockholder.  However, in approving a transaction, the board of directors may provide that its approval is subject to compliance, at or after the time of approval, with any terms and conditions determined by the board.

After the expiration of the five-year period described above, any business combination between the Maryland corporation and an interested stockholder must generally be recommended by the board of directors of the corporation and approved by the affirmative vote of at least:

These super-majority vote requirements do not apply if the corporation’s common stockholders receive a minimum price, as defined under the Maryland General Corporation Law, for their shares in the form of cash or other consideration in the same form as previously paid by the interested stockholder for its shares.  The Maryland General Corporation Law also permits various exemptions from these provisions, including business combinations that are exempted by the board of directors before the time that the interested stockholder becomes an interested stockholder.  Pursuant to the statute, our board of directors has by resolution exempted business combinations between us and any other person from these provisions of the Maryland General Corporation Law, provided that the business combination is first approved by our board of directors and, consequently, the five year prohibition and the supermajority vote requirements will not apply to such business combinations.  As a result, any person approved by our board of directors will be able to enter into business combinations with us that may not be in the best interests of our stockholders without compliance by us with the supermajority vote requirements and other provisions of the statute.  This resolution, however, may be altered or repealed in whole or in part at any time.  If this resolution is repealed, or our board of directors does not otherwise approve a business combination, the statute may discourage others from trying to acquire control of us and increase the difficulty of consummating any offer.

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Stockholders have limited control over changes in our policies and operations.

Our board of directors determines our major policies, including those regarding our investment objectives and strategies, financing, growth, debt capitalization, REIT qualification and distributions.  Our board of directors may amend or revise these and other policies without a vote of the stockholders.  Under our charter and the Maryland General Corporation Law, our stockholders generally have a right to vote only on the following matters:

All other matters are subject to the discretion of our board of directors.

Our authorized but unissued shares of common and preferred stock may prevent a change in our control.

Our charter authorizes us to issue additional authorized but unissued shares of common or preferred stock.  In addition, our board of directors may, without stockholder approval, amend our charter from time to time to increase or decrease the aggregate number of shares of our stock or the number of shares of stock of any class or series that we have authority to issue and classify or reclassify any unissued shares of common or preferred stock into other classes or series of stock and set the preferences, rights and other terms of the classified or reclassified shares.  As a result, our board of directors may establish a series of common or preferred stock that could delay or prevent a transaction or a change in control that might involve a premium price for our common stock or otherwise be in the best interest of our stockholders.

Because of our holding company structure, we depend on our operating partnership, IROP, and its subsidiaries for cash flow; however, we will be structurally subordinated in right of payment to the obligations of IROP and its subsidiaries.

We are a holding company with no business operations of our own.  Our only significant asset is and will be the partnership interests in IROP.  We conduct, and intend to continue to conduct, all of our business operations through IROP.  Accordingly, our only source of cash to pay our obligations is distributions from IROP and its subsidiaries of their net earnings and cash flows.  We cannot assure you that IROP or its subsidiaries will be able to, or be permitted to, make distributions to us that will enable us to make distributions to our stockholders from cash flows from operations.  Each of IROP’s subsidiaries is a distinct legal entity and, under certain circumstances, legal and contractual restrictions may limit our ability to obtain cash from such entities.  In addition, because we are a holding company, your claims as stockholders will be structurally subordinated to all existing and future liabilities and obligations of IROP and its subsidiaries.  Therefore, in the event of our bankruptcy, liquidation or reorganization, our assets and those of IROP and its subsidiaries will be able to satisfy your claims as stockholders only after all of our and IROP’s and its subsidiaries’ liabilities and obligations have been paid in full.

Our rights and the rights of our stockholders to recover on claims against our directors are limited, which could reduce your and our recovery against them if they negligently cause us to incur losses.

The Maryland General Corporation Law provides that a director has no liability in such capacity if he performs his duties in good faith, in a manner he reasonably believes to be in our best interests and with the care that an ordinarily prudent person in a like position would use under similar circumstances.  In addition, our directors and officers will not be liable to us or our stockholders for monetary damages unless the director or officer actually received an improper benefit or profit in money, property or services, or is adjudged to be liable to us or our stockholders based on a finding that his or her action, or failure to act, was the result of active and deliberate dishonesty and was material to the cause of action adjudicated in the proceeding.  We will indemnify and advance expenses to our directors and officers to the maximum extent permitted by the Maryland General Corporation Law and we are permitted to purchase and maintain insurance or provide similar protection on behalf of any directors, officers, employees and agents, against any liability asserted which was incurred in any such capacity with us or arising out of such status.

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Risks Relating to the Market for our Common Stock

The percentage of ownership of any of our common stockholders may be diluted if we issue new shares of common stock.

Stockholders have no rights to buy additional shares of stock if we issue new shares of stock.  We may issue common stock, convertible debt or preferred stock pursuant to a public offering or a private placement, to sellers of properties we directly or indirectly acquire instead of, or in addition to, cash consideration.  Because our decision to issue securities in any future offering will depend on market conditions and other factors beyond our control, we cannot predict or estimate the amount, timing or nature of our future offerings.  Any of our common stockholders who do not participate in any future stock issuances will experience dilution in the percentage of the issued and outstanding stock they own.

Sales of our common stock, or the perception that such sales will occur, may have adverse effects on our share price.

We cannot predict the effect, if any, of future sales of common stock, or the availability of shares for future sales, on the market price of our common stock.  Sales of substantial amounts of common stock, including shares of common stock issuable upon the exchange of units of our operating partnership, IROP, that we may issue from time to time, the sale of shares of common stock held by our current stockholders and the sale of any shares we may issue under our long-term incentive plan, or the perception that these sales could occur, may adversely affect prevailing market prices for our common stock.

An increase in market interest rates may have an adverse effect on the market price of our common stock.

One of the factors that investors may consider in deciding whether to buy or sell our common stock is our distribution yield, which is our distribution rate as a percentage of our share price, relative to market interest rates.  If market interest rates increase, prospective investors may desire a higher distribution yield on our common stock or may seek securities paying higher dividends or interest.  The market price of our common stock likely will be based primarily on the earnings that we derive from rental income with respect to our properties and our related distributions to stockholders, and not from the underlying appraised value of the properties themselves.  As a result, interest rate fluctuations and capital market conditions are likely to affect the market price of our common stock, and such effects could be significant.  For example, if interest rates rise without an increase in our distribution rate, the market price of our common stock could decrease because potential investors may require a higher distribution yield on our common stock as market rates on interest-bearing securities, such as bonds, rise.

Some of our distributions may include a return of capital for U.S. federal income tax purposes.

Some of our distributions may include a return of capital.  To the extent that we decide to make distributions in excess of our current and accumulated earnings and profits, such distributions would generally be considered a return of capital for U.S. federal income tax purposes to the extent of the holder’s adjusted tax basis in its shares, and thereafter as gain on a sale or exchange of such shares.

Future issuances of debt securities, which would rank senior to our common stock upon liquidation, or future issuances of preferred equity securities, may adversely affect the trading price of our common stock.

In the future, we may issue debt or equity securities or incur other borrowings.  Upon our liquidation, holders of our debt securities, other loans and preferred stock will receive a distribution of our available assets before common stockholders.  Any preferred stock, if issued, likely will also have a preference on periodic distribution payments, which could eliminate or otherwise limit our ability to make distributions to common stockholders.  Common stockholders bear the risk that our future issuances of debt or equity securities or our incurrence of other borrowings may negatively affect the trading price of our common stock.

The market prices for our common stock may be volatile.

The prices at which our common stock may sell in the public market may be volatile.  Fluctuations in the market prices of our common stock may not be correlated in a predictable way to our performance or operating results.  The prices at which our common stock trade may fluctuate as a result of factors that are beyond our control or unrelated to our performance or operating results.

We have not established a minimum dividend payment level and we cannot assure you of our ability to pay dividends in the future or the amount of any dividends.

Our board of directors will determine the amount and timing of distributions.  In making this determination, our directors will consider all relevant factors, including REIT minimum distribution requirements, the amount of core funds from operation, restrictions under Maryland law, capital expenditures and reserve requirements and general operational requirements.  We cannot assure you that

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we will be able to make distributions in the future or in amounts similar to our past distributions.  We may need to fund distributions through borrowings, returning capital or selling assets, which may be available only at commercially unattractive terms, if at all.  Any of the foregoing could adversely affect the market price of our common stock.

None.

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We hold fee title to all of the apartment properties in our portfolio. The following table presents an overview of our portfolio as of December 31, 2018.

Additional information on our consolidated properties is contained in “Schedule III - Real Estate and Accumulated Depreciation” in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, which is incorporated herein by reference.

We are subject to various legal proceedings and claims that arise in the ordinary course of our business operations. Matters which arise out of allegations of bodily injury, property damage, and employment practices are generally covered by insurance. While the resolution of these matters cannot be predicted with certainty, we currently believe the final outcome of such matters will not have a material adverse effect on our financial position, results of operations or cash flows.

Not applicable.

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PART II

Market Information; Holders

Our common stock is listed and traded on the NYSE under the symbol “IRT”. At the close of business on February 20, 2019, the closing price for our common stock was $10.70 per share and there were 56 holders of record, one of which is the holder for all beneficial owners who hold in street name.

Dividends

Our quarterly dividend rate is currently $0.18 per common share. Our Board of Directors reviews and declares the dividend rate quarterly. Actual dividends paid by us will be affected by a number of factors, including, but not limited to, the revenues received from our apartment communities, our operating expenses, the interest expense incurred on borrowings and unanticipated capital expenditures. We expect to make future quarterly distributions to stockholders; however, future distributions will be at the discretion of our Board of Directors and will depend on our actual funds from operations, our financial condition, capital requirements, the annual distribution requirements under the REIT provisions of the Code (see "Business - Qualification as a Real Estate Investment Trust" above) and such other factors as our Board of Directors deems relevant.

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 PERFORMANCE GRAPH

On August 13, 2013, our common stock commenced trading on the NYSE MKT. On July 31, 2017 we transferred the listing of our common stock to the New York Stock Exchange (“NYSE”) from the NYSE MKT. The following graph compares the index of the cumulative total shareholder return on our common shares for the measurement period beginning December 31, 2013 and ending December 31, 2018 with the cumulative total returns of the National Association of Real Estate Investment Trusts (NAREIT) Equity REIT index and the Russell 3000 Index. The following graph assumes that each index was 100 on the initial day of the relevant measurement period and that all dividends were reinvested.

Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities

As of January 1, 2018, an aggregate of 3,011,351 common units in IROP were outstanding and held by unaffiliated entities or persons who received the units in exchange for property contributions.  We did not issue any units in IROP in calendar year 2018.  As previously disclosed, the units in IROP are subject to exchange agreements that permit the holders of the units to tender the units to us for cash in an amount equal to the market price (based on a trailing average computation) of an equivalent number of shares of our common stock at the time we receive notice of the exchange.  We have the option, in lieu of paying cash, to settle the exchange for a number of shares of our common stock equal to the number of units tendered for exchange.  On January 5, 2018, we issued 186,717 shares of common stock, on March 1, 2018, we issued 1,925,419 shares of common stock, and on July 16, 2018, we issued 18,108 shares of common stock, in each case in exchange for an equal number of units. Our issuances of the shares of common stock were exempt from registration pursuant to Section 4(a)(2) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended.  As a result of these exchanges, as well as unit exchanges that we settled for cash, at December 31, 2018 and at February 20, 2019, there remained outstanding 881,107 units and 881,107 units, respectively, outstanding and held by unaffiliated third parties.

Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

None.  

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Equity Compensation Plan Information

The following table sets forth certain information regarding our equity compensation plans as of December 31, 2018.

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The following table summarizes selected financial data about our company (dollars in thousands, except share and per share data). The following selected financial data information should be read in conjunction with Item 7, “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,” and our consolidated financial statements, including the notes thereto, included elsewhere herein.

Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (“MD&A”) is intended to help provide an understanding of our business, financial condition and results of operations. This MD&A should be read in conjunction with our Consolidated Financial Statements and the accompanying Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements included elsewhere in this report. This report, including the following MD&A, contains forward-looking statements regarding future events or trends that are intended to be made pursuant to the safe harbor provisions of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995.

These forward-looking statements are based upon the current beliefs and expectations of our management and are inherently subject to significant business, economic and competitive uncertainties and contingencies, many of which are difficult to predict and generally beyond our control. In addition, these forward-looking statements are subject to assumptions with respect to future business strategies and decisions that are subject to change. We assume no obligation to update or supplement forward-looking statements because of subsequent events.  Actual results may differ materially from the anticipated results discussed in these forward-looking statements.  Factors which may cause our actual results or performance to differ materially from those contemplated by forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to, the risk the following:

• Unfavorable changes in economic conditions, either nationally or regionally in one or more of the markets in which we operate, could adversely impact us;

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• Competition could limit our ability to lease apartments or increase or maintain rental income;

• Short-term leases expose us to the effects of declining market rents;

• Redevelopment risks could impact our profitability;

• Labor and materials required for maintenance, repair, renovation or capital expenditure may be more expensive than anticipated;

• Competition could adversely affect our ability to acquire properties;

• Our acquisition strategy may not produce the cash flows expected;

• Failure to qualify as a REIT could have adverse consequences;

• Litigation risks could affect our business;

• Damage from catastrophic weather and other natural events could result in losses;

• A cybersecurity incident and other technology disruptions could negatively impact our business;

• Volatility in capital markets may result in fluctuations in our share price;

• Debt financing and other required capital may not be available to us or may only be available on adverse terms;

• Rising interest rates could both increase our borrowing costs, thereby adversely affecting our cash flows and the amounts available for distribution to our shareholders, and decrease our share price, if investors seek higher yields through other investments;

• Failure to hedge effectively against interest rates may adversely affect results of operations; and

• Additional factors as discussed in Item 1A. “Risk Factors”. Forward-looking statements and related uncertainties are also included in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements in this report.

Overview

See Item 1. Business for an overview of our company.

Business Objective and Investment Strategies

See Item 1. Business for discussion regarding our business objective and investment strategies.

Recent Trends

An important part of our investment strategy is to strengthen our balance sheet and drive long-term growth and unlock value through portfolio enhancements.  Our value add program, which is comprised of renovations and upgrades at selected communities to drive increased rental rates, is a core component of this strategy.  A discussed earlier, we have identified 4,314 units across 14 of our communities for renovations and upgrades as part of value add programs, and estimate the total investment to complete these renovations and upgrades will be approximately $50.0 million.  As of December 31, 2018, we had completed renovations and upgrades at 1,232 of the 4,314 units. We expect to complete the remaining value add projects at the selected communities during 2019 and through the first half of 2020.  While demand in 2018 for our same store portfolio remained relatively strong, we experienced occupancy declines during 2018 at some of our communities subject to the value add program, primarily due to construction activities.  As we continue to execute on our value add program, we remain focused on realizing increases in rents as a result of the renovations and upgrades while normalizing occupancy levels at the subject properties.

In 2018, we acquired eight communities, totaling 2,379 units.  These acquisitions represent the execution of our strategy to gain scale within desired submarkets. In 2019, subject to market conditions, we intend to continue to seek opportunities to gain scale within our existing markets through acquisitions of communities which fit within our investment strategy.  We face competition for attractive investment opportunities from other real estate investors and, as a result, we may be unable to acquire additional properties on desirable terms, or at all.

A disciplined management of property level operating expenses, which impacts the net operating income (“NOI”), of our portfolio, is an important part of our operating strategy.  Our same store property level operating expenses increased by 1.1% for the year ended December 31, 2018 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017. Despite such increase, our same store property level NOI increased by 2.6% for the year ended December 31, 2018 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2017. We currently anticipate an increase in our total same store property level operating expenses for the year ending December 31, 2019, primarily as the result of increases in real estate taxes. To the extent that real estate taxes rise due to general economic conditions within a submarket, we would

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expect our geographic competitors to be similarly impacted and would accordingly expect rental rate increases to go into effect across the broader submarket, which we expect would offset or reduce the effects of the increase in real estate taxes.  To the extent real estate taxes rise as a result of improvements to our properties from our value add initiative, we believe the increased occupancy and higher rental rates which we expect to achieve from the improvements would off-set or reduce the increased tax expense.  Given the short-term nature of our leases, to the extent real estate taxes rise we would expect to seek to offset the increased expense through increases in rental rates.

See Item 1. Business for an additional discussion regarding developments in our business during 2018.

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Results of Operations

Year Ended December 31, 2018 Compared to the Year Ended December 31, 2017

Revenue

Rental Income. Rental revenue increased $27.0 million to $170.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 from $143.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. The increase was primarily attributable to a $1.9 million increase in same store rental income driven by a 3.3% increase in average effective monthly rents compared to the prior year period and a $25.1 million increase in our non same store portfolio. The non same store rental income increase was due to the number of properties included in each period being different as a result of the timing of property sales and acquisitions.

Tenant reimbursement and other income. Tenant reimbursement and other income increased $3.2 million to $20.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 from $17.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. The increase was due to a $0.6 million increase in same store reimbursement and other income attributable to higher move-in and related fees and a $2.6 million increase in non same store reimbursement and other income. The non same store reimbursement income increase was due to the number of properties included in each period being different as a result of the timing of property sales and acquisitions.

Property management income. Property management income was $0.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 compared to $0.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. This was due to a decrease in the size of our third-party managed property portfolio. As of December 31, 2018, we have exited the third-party management space and no longer have any properties that we manage for others.

Expenses

Property operating expenses. Property operating expenses increased $11.7 million to $76.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 from $64.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. The increase was primarily due to a $0.6 million increase in same store real estate operating expenses and a $11.1 million increase in non same store real estate operating expenses. The non same store real estate operating expense increase was due to the number of properties included in each period being different as a result of the timing of property sales and acquisitions.

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Property management expenses. Property management expenses increased $1.0 million to $7.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 from $6.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. This was primarily due to an increase in software costs, travel costs, and legal fees for our property management company as the size of our property portfolio has grown.

General and administrative expenses. General and administrative expenses increased $1.3 million to $10.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 from $9.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. The increase was primarily attributable to a $0.6 million increase in stock based compensation and a $0.4 million increase in professional fees.  

Acquisition and integration expenses. Acquisition and integration expenses were $1.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. All acquisition costs were capitalized during the year ended December 31, 2018 because all acquisitions after January 1, 2018 were accounted for as asset acquisitions rather than business combinations. The expenses incurred in the year ended December 31, 2017 were primarily related to the acquisition of a nine-community portfolio (the HPI Portfolio).

Depreciation and amortization expense. Depreciation and amortization expense increased $11.0 million to $45.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 from $34.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. The increase was primarily attributable to a $7.9 million increase in depreciation expense due to property acquisitions during 2017 and 2018 and a $1.9 million increase in in-place lease intangible amortization, and a $1.2 million increase in the depreciation and amortization for our same store portfolio.

Interest expense. Interest expense increased $7.3 million to $36.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 from $28.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2017.  This was primarily due to a $201.7 million increase in the balance of our unsecured credit facility from December 31, 2017 to December 31, 2018, which related to our investments in additional property acquisitions and value add related capital expenditures.

Net gains (losses) on sale of assets. During the year ended December 31, 2018, two multi-family properties were sold resulting in gains of $10.7 million. During the year ended December 31, 2017, four multi-family properties were sold resulting in gains of $18.8 million.

Gains (losses) on extinguishment of debt. We did not recognize a gain or loss on the extinguishment of debt during the year ended December 31, 2018. During the year ended December 31, 2017, we recognized a $0.6 million loss on the extinguishment of debt related to the partial extinguishment of our prior secured credit facility.

Acquisition related debt extinguishment expenses. We did not incur any acquisition related debt extinguishment expenses for the year ended December 31, 2018. Acquisition related debt extinguishment expenses were $3.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2017 due to defeasance related costs incurred in connection with the HPI Portfolio acquisitions.

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Year Ended December 31, 2017 Compared to the Year Ended December 31, 2016